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THE    PROVINCES    OF    CALIFORNIA 


1 — The  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains 
2— The  Great  Valley 


3 — The  Coast  Ranges 
4 — Southern  California 
5 — Klamath  Mountains 


6 — The  Volcanic  Plateau 
7 — The  Great  Basin 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF 
CALIFORNIA 


BY 

HAROLD  VV.  FAIRBANKS,  Ph.  D. 

Author  of 

Stories  of  Our  Mother  Earth,  Home  Geography,  Rocks 

and  Minerals,  The  Western  United  States, 

Practical  Physiography, 

Etc. 


SAN  FRANCISCO 

WHITAKER  &  RAY-WIGGIN  CO. 

1912. 


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COPYRIGHT  1911 

BY 

WHITAKER  &  RAY-WIGGIN  CO. 


CONTENTS 


Chapter 

I. 

Chapter 

II. 

Chapter 

III. 

Chapter 

IV. 

Chapter 

V. 

Chapter       VI. 
Chapter     VII. 

Chapter   VIII. 

Chapter       IX. 

Chapter         X. 
Chapter       XI. 


Chapter     XII. 


Chapter   XIII. 


PART   I. 

INTRODUCTION.  page 

GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  CALIFORNIA       .         .  1 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  SURFACE  FEATURES  .         .  6 

THE  COAST  LINE  OF  CALIFORNIA         .         .  10 

THE  CLIMATE  OF  CALIFORNIA       ...  16 

NATURAL    RESOURCES 24 

Water    Supply 24 

Soil 28 

Vegetation      ........  30 

Animal  Life 38 

Minerals 40 

PRIMITIVE    INHABITANTS          ....  47 
SUCCESSIVE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   DIFFERENT 

OCCUPATIONS 50 

IMPORTANCE    OF    IRRIGATION    IN    CALIFOR- 
NIA   55 

DEVELOPMENT    OF    INDUSTRIAL    AND    COM- 
MERCIAL   LIFE    .        .        .        .        .        .  57 

PART   II. 

THE     DIFFERENT     NATURAL     REGIONS     OR 

PROVINCES 60 

THE   SIERRA   NEVADA  MOUNTAINS       .         .  62 

Mountain   Passes 65 

Geographical   Story   of  the   Sierra   Nevada   Moun- 
tains                    .         .         .  67 

The  Scenic  Features  of  the  Mountains         .         .  69 

Economic    Importance 73 

THE  GREAT  VALLEY  PROVINCE  ...  78 

Drainage 79 

Climate 81 

Industrial    Development 83 

THE   COAST   RANGES 88 

Drainage 93 

Climate  of  the  Coastal  Region  97 

Mountain  Passes:    Lines  of  Communication         .  99 

Old  Levels  of  the  Mountains         ....  103 

Ancient  Volcanoes 104 

Great  Earthquake  Rift 105 

Natural   Resources 107 


M584454 


CONTENTS— Continued 


PAGE 

Chapter    XIV.       SOUTHERN    CALIFORNIA Ill 

Relief  and   Drainage Ill 

Lakes 125 

Coast  and  Islands 126 

Earthquake  Lines 129 

Geographic   History 132 

Geographic   Barriers 134 

Climate 137 

Natural    Resources 138 

Value  of  Different  Slopes 140 

Industrial   Development 142 

Chapter      XV.       KLAMATH    MOUNTAIN    REGION  .         .147 

Location  and  Boundaries 147 

Physical  Features 148 

Climatic  Features 151 

Resources 152 

Chapter    XVI.       THE  VOLCANIC  PLATEAU   REGION  .154 

Volcanoes  and  Recent  Eruptions          .  v     .         .  156 

Climate 158 

Resources 158 

Chapter  XVII.  THE  GREAT  BASIN  PROVINCE  .  .  .160 
Extent  and  General  Character      .         .         .         .160 

Surface  Features 161 

Climate 169 

Natural   Resources 172 

APPENDIX 175 


Q 
J* 


THE    GEOGRAPHY    OF    CALIFORNIA. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  geography  of  California  is  a  vast  and  many  sided  subject 
which  has  never  yet  been  adequately  treated.  It  is  not  the  inten- 
tion of  the  author  in  presenting  this  little  hand-book  to  take  up 
the  subject  in  an  exhaustive  manner,  for  that  would  require  a 
large  volume.  Nor  is  his  intention  to  present  a  mere  description 
of  the  various  aspects  of  the  geography  of  the  State,  for  this  has 
already  been  done,  although  in  an  inadequate  manner,  in  various 
little  school  supplements  and  advertising  pamphlets.  Moreover, 
mere  description  cannot  impart  real  geographic  knowledge,  since 
we  must  know  something  of  causes  and  relations. 

The  object  which  the  author  has  in  mind  is  rather  to  give  a 
simple  and  yet  detailed  description  of  the  conditions  under  which 
we  are  living,  and  weave  them  into  a  connected  and  rational 
whole,  so  that  teachers  and  pupils  may  acquire  the  elements  of  a 
rational  knowledge  of  California.  As  our  work  in  geography  is 
at  present  outlined  it  is  ridiculously  unphilosophical  as  well  as 
thoroughly  inadequate. 

The  geography  of  California  is  extraordinarily  varied  and 
interesting.  Children  should  not  leave  school  without  some 
elementary  conceptions  of  the  origin  and  meaning  of  the  physical 
features  about  them,  of  the  strongly  contrasted  climatic  condi- 
tions, and  of  the  influence  which  these  exert  upon  our  lives. 

To  meet  the  above  need  the  author  has  woven  together  in  as 
simple  manner  as  possible  those  facts  and  relations  which  should 
be  known  and  appreciated  by  every  educated  resident  of  Cali- 
fornia. 


CHAPTER  I. 
A    GENERAL    SURVEY    OF    CALIFORNIA. 

The  fabled  "Isle  of  California"  described  in  an  old 
Spanish  romance  as  lying  in  the  South  Seas  was  peopled 
with  Amazons,  Griffins,  and  contained  stores  of  gold. 
What  was  more  natural  then,  than  that  the  large  body  of 
land  discovered  off  the  west  coast  of  Mexico  by  a  Spanish 
commander  under  Cortez,  and  supposed  to  be  an  island, 
should  receive  the  name  of  California?  To  be  sure,  the 
new  land  was  not  known  to  contain  gold,  or  had  any 
monsters  been  seen,  but  this  mattered  little  to  the  imagin- 
ative Spaniards. 

For  more  than  two  hundred  years  there  was  difference 
of  opinion  as  to  whether  this  land  which  we  now  know 
as  Lower  California  was  an  island  or  a  part  of  the  main- 
land. In  a  geography  published  in  London  in  1725  Cali- 
fornia is  described  and  mapped  as  a  large  island  extend- 
ing north  to  the  Straits  of  Anian  (Puget  Sound).  In 
this  book  all  that  is  known  of  California  is  given  in  one 
paragraph,  a  part  of  which  reads  as  follows :  "This  island 
was  formerly  esteemed  a  peninsula,  but  now  found  to  be 
entirely  surrounded  with  water.  Its  north  part  was  dis- 
covered by  Sir  Francis  Drake,  Anno  1577,  and  by  him 
called  New  Albion,  where,  erecting  a  pillar,  he  fastened 
thereto  the  arms  of  England.  The  inland  parts  were 
afterwards  searched  into,  and  being  found  to  be  only  a 
dry,  barren,  cold  country,  Europeans  were  discouraged 
from  sending  colonies  to  the  same,  so  that  it  still  remains 
in  the  hands  of  the  natives." 


2  The    Geography    of    California 

After  the  establishment,  in  1769,  of  the  first  of  the 
missions  within  the  boundaries  of  the  present  State,  the 
northern  portion  of  that  indefinite  area  to  which  the 
name  California  had  been  given  came  to  be  known  as 
New,  or  Upper  California,  while  the  older  known  penin- 
sula was  called  Old,  or  Lower  California. 

We  find  that  by  1832  the  opinion  first  formed  as  to  the 
value  of  California  had  given  place  to  a  radically  differ- 
ent one,  as  illustrated  by  Flint's  geography  of  that  date. 
He  says:  "This  picturesque  country  displays  on  every 
side  magnificent  forests  or  verdant  savannahs,  where  the 
herds  of  deer  and  elk  of  enormous  size  graze  undisturbed. 
The  soil  is  fertile.  The  vine,  olive  and  wheat  prosper. 
*  *  *  The  aspect  of  the  country  is  charming,  and  the 
inhabitants  enjoy  perpetual  spring." 

It  was  not  until  after  the  war  with  Mexico  that  the 
boundaries  of  Upper  California  became  clearly  defined, 
although  on  the  north  the  forty-second  parallel  had  been 
previously  recognized  by  treaty  with  Spain  as  separating 
it  from  the  Oregon  territory. 

As  one  result  of  the  Mexican  war  we  came  into  posses- 
sion of  Lower  as  well  as  Upper  California,  but  the  treaty 
of  peace  finally  established  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
present  State  near  the  thirty-second  parallel.  The  orig- 
inal draft  of  the  treaty  included  the  mouth  of  the  Colo- 
rado in  the  United  States,  and  should  have  been  ratified 
as  it  was,  for  it  would  have  avoided  disputes  as  to  the 
use  of  the  river  and  saved  an  arbitrary  boundary  line 
across  its  great  and  fertile  delta. 

The  eastern  boundary  of  California,  during  Mexican 
rule  was  quite  indefinite.    It  was  held,  on  the  one  hand, 


A  General  Survey  of  California  3 

that  the  summit  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  or  Snowy  Moun- 
tains was  the  eastern  limit,  while  on  the  other,  the  country 
as  far  east  as  Colorado  was  included  in  the  territory.  The 
line  as  finally  established,  however,  followed  a  middle 
course,  including  a  strip  of  the  desert  country  east  of  the 
Sierras  which  geographically  belongs  with  Nevada. 

The  only  natural  features,  then,  which  sharply  set  off 
California  from  the  adjacent  regions  are  the  Pacific 
ocean  upon  the  west,  and  the  Colorado  river  upon  the 
southeast.  Notwithstanding  this  fact  the  coastal  region 
and  the  Great  Valley  with  its  tributary  slopes  are  so 
isolated  by  mountains  and  deserts  that  with  the  primitive 
means  of  travel  in  the  early  days  they  were  extremely 
difficult  to  reach. 

The  water  route  by  the  Isthmus  or  Cape  Horn  was 
long  and  dangerous.  The  Sierra  Nevadas  formed  a  wall 
upon  the  east  which  it  was  almost  impossible  to  pass 
except  at  favorable  seasons  of  the  year,  while  on  the 
north  canons  and  mountains  almost  as  difficult  of  passage 
separated  California  from  Oregon. 

The  Colorado  river  formed  no  great  obstacle,  for  its 
mighty  canon  lies  out  of  the  direct  line  from  the  east,  yet 
both  to  the  east  and  west  of  it  were  vast  deserts  which, 
stretching  far  north  across  Nevada,  almost  encircled  the 
mountain  barrier,  adding  very  greatly  to  the  danger  and 
difficulty  of  emigrant  travel.  When,  however,  the  emi- 
grants had  reached  San  Francisco  by  water,  or  had  finally 
passed  the  Sierras  and  entered  the  Great  Valley,  the 
topography  of  the  country  was  found  to  be  such,  with 
the  streams   and  valleys   converging  to  San   Francisco 


4  The    Geography    of   California 

Bay,  that  they  could  gain  with  little  trouble  almost  any 
point  in  the  central  and  northern  portions  of  the  State. 

The  emigrant,  who  came  the  southern  route  across 
Arizona  and  entered  Southern  California,  was  still  far 
from  being  past  the  difficulties  of  his  journey  if  he  wished 
to  gain  the  "gold  diggings."  The  Mohave  Desert,  with 
its  bounding  mountains,  forms  a  wedge  almost  cutting 
the  State  into  two  parts.  The  only  way  to  reach  North- 
ern and  Central  California  was  either  to  cross  the  moun- 
tain ranges  and  desert,  or  by  keeping  close  to  the  coast, 
take  advantage  of  a  passage  between  a  spur  of  the  moun- 
tains and  the  sea.  The  trail  led  along  a  narrow  beach 
beneath  the  cliffs  and  was  impassable  at  high  tide.  In 
addition,  several  mountain  ranges  had  to  be  crossed  on 
the  latter  route.  California  is  thus  seen  to  be  a  political 
unit  with  a  very  complex  geographical  character.  Phys- 
ical and  climatic  barriers  appear  to  have  played  an  unusu- 
ally insignificant  part  in  the  setting  of  its  boundaries. 

The  influence  of  the  waterways  upon  the  discovery  and 
settlement  of  California  was  much  less  than  is  usually  the 
case  with  new  countries.  The  Colorado  river  was  prac- 
tically useless  because  of  the  great  canon  in  which  it  is 
buried  throughout  the  most  of  its  course.  In  addition, 
its  lower  portion  is  shallow  and  its  mouth  in  such  a  remote 
and  inaccessible  region  that  it  was  almost  unused  in  the 
early  days.  No  other  streams  were  available  for  those 
attempting  to  cross  the  continent,  although  for  some 
years  previous  to  Fremont's  explorations,  it  was  erron- 
eously supposed,  and  this  error  crept  into  the  maps  of 
that  time,  that  a  great  river  known  as  the  Buenaventura 
rose  in  a  lake  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  flowed  west- 


A  General  Survey  of  California  5 

erly  into  San  Francisco  Bay.  Fremont  attempted  to  find 
this  supposed  river  when  caught  in  the  deserts  of  north- 
ern Nevada  with  winter  coming  on,  and  nearly  perished 
in  the  snows  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  range  which  was 
found  to  lie  directly  across  the  path  of  the  imaginary 
stream. 

With  California  hemmed  in  by  mountains  and  deserts 
upon  the  land  side,  it  would  surely  seem  that  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  which  borders  it  for  such  a  long  distance,  we  would 
find  an  easy  way  of  approach.  However,  the  records  of 
the  various  exploring  expeditions  which  visited  the 
Pacific  coast  of  North  America  show  that  they  were 
repeatedly  driven  southward  by  the  northwesterly  winds 
and  storms.  Time  and  again  the  expeditions  sent  up  the 
coast  from  Mexico  were  beaten  back  and  disabled.  Par- 
ties traveling  by  land  made  better  time  and  encountered 
fewer  difficulties  than  those  upon  the  ocean.  The  diffi- 
culty of  exploring  the  coast  by  sea  caused  both  Drake 
and  Visciano  to  sail  past  the  entrance  to  San  Francisco 
Bay  without  seeing  it,  and  led  to  its  interesting  discovery 
by  a  land  expedition  under  Portola. 


6  The    Geography    of   California 

CHAPTER  II. 
ORIGIN  OF  THE  SURFACE  FEATURES. 

The  traveler  passing  through  California  encounters  the 
most  remarkable  diversity  of  scenery,  as  well  as  of  climate 
and  productions.  Nowhere  else  in  the  United  States  is 
there  to  be  found  in  an  equal  area  so  many  interesting 
land  forms,  and  nowhere  else  is  shown  so  clearly  the 
influence  which  these  exert  upon  climate  and  life.  Within 
the  bounds  of  California  are  found  nearly  all  the  different 
types  of  physical  features  which  make  up  the  surface  of 
the  earth.  We  have,  then,  in  our  study  of -California 
geography  a  most  remarkable  opportunity  to  learn  how 
completely  human  life  is  dependent  upon  the  conditions 
surrounding  it,  and  how  this  life  has  been  modified  by 
these  conditions. 

Although  we  do  not  ordinarily  realize  the  fact,  the 
surface  of  the  earth  is  never  at  rest.  In  one  place  it  may 
be  slowly  rising,  while  in  another  it  is  sinking.  As  a  rule 
these  movements  are  so  slow  that  their  effects  are  scarcely 
noticeable  in  a  lifetime,  but  now  and  then,  when  the 
strain  exerted  by  the  forces  within  the  earth  is  greater 
than  the  crust  will  stand,  the  latter  breaks  and  slips,  and 
we  experience  the  sudden  jar  of  an  earthquake. 

These  forces  which  fold  and  break  the  surface  operate 
from  within  the  earth.  Upon  the  outside  there  are  other 
forces  at  work  whose  ultimate  effect  is  to  smooth  down 
the  surface.  Changes  of  temperature,  frost,  carbonic 
acid,  etc.,  are  everywhere  causing  the  exposed  rocks  to 
crumble  and  decay,  while  the  streams  are  the  chief  agents 


Origin  of  the  Surface  Features  7 

which  are  carrying  these  materials  from  the  highlands  to 
the  lowlands. 

In  trying  to  understand  the  physical  geography  of  Cali- 
fornia we  must  remember  that  the  surface  as  we  see  it 
is  the  result  of  the  interaction  of  the  two  forces  men- 
tioned. We  might  say  that  they  are  more  or  less  in  con- 
flict with  each  other.  The  first  has  folded  and  broken 
the  earth's  surface,  making  mountains  and  broad  valleys, 
while  the  second  has  been  tearing  down  the  mountains 
and  fining  up  the  valleys.  During  this  process  of  erosion 
the  surface  is  sculptured  into  the  infinite  variety  of  peak 
and  canon  which  we  see  in  the  hilly  and  mountainous 
portions  of  the  State.  If  left  undisturbed  long  enough 
the  loftiest  mountains  will  finally  be  worn  down  to  low 
hills  and  even  plains. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  is  clear  that  the  higher  and 
steeper  mountains  are  younger  than  those  with  gentle 
slopes.  In  different  parts  of  the  State  there  are  escarp- 
ments which  have  been  made  by  earthquake  movements 
in  quite  recent  times.  Such  escarpments  are  particularly 
well  illustrated  along  the  Great  Rift  of  the  Coast  Ranges. 
Although  the  opening  of  this  rift  at  the  earthquake  of 
1906  was  due  to  a  horizontal  strain  rather  than  a  vertical 
one,  yet  at  earlier  times  the  vertical  movement  predom- 
inated, as  is  shown  by  long  ridges  and  cliffs,  in  places 
several  hundred  feet  high.  The  grand  and  picturesque 
eastern  wall  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  facing 
Owens  Valley  was  formed  by  a  series  of  similar  displace- 
ments extending  through  a  long  period  of  time,  and 
which  have  amounted  to  10,000  feet  in  the  Mt.  Whitney 


8  The    Geography    of   California 

region.  The  Owens  Valley  earthquake  of  1872  showed 
that  these  have  not  yet  stopped. 

In  going  from  the  Great  Valley  to  Los  Angeles  we 
cross  the  western  arm  of  the  Mohave  Desert  and  obtain 
an  excellent  view  of  a  topography  which  contrasts  most 
strongly  with  that  of  the  mountains  just  mentioned.  This 
is  a  region  of  ancient  and  almost  worn  down  mountains. 
No  earthquake  or  other  mountain-making  movements 
have  disturbed  this  region  for  ages.  It  has  been  so  long 
subject  only  to  the  forces  of  disintegration  and  erosion 
that  its  once  mountainous  surface  has  been  reduced 
almost  to  a  plain.  Low  hills  rise  here  and  there,  some  of 
them  perhaps  still  worthy  of  the  name  of  mountains,  but 
their  slopes  are  gentle,  and  the  accumulations  of  gravel 
due  to  the  occasional  cloudbursts  in  places  almost  cover 
the  remnants  of  the  one-time  mountainous  surface.  This 
region  is  in  its  topographic  old  age,  and  the  desert  waste 
only  adds  to  the  impression  of  decay  and  death.  Imagin- 
ation fails  to  picture  the  length  of  time  required  to 
accomplish  this  result,  or  the  number  of  years  that  would 
be  required  to  reduce  the  lofty  Sierra  Nevadas  to  a  simi- 
lar condition. 

In  the  northeastern  part  of  the  State  we  find  a  different 
kind  of  mountains  from  those  described.  These  are  vol- 
canoes, and  although  apparently  extinct,  some  of  them 
give  indications  of  having  been  in  eruption  so  recently 
that  we  should  not  be  surprised  to  see  them  break  forth 
again.  Earthquakes  and  volcanic  action  have  had  a  great 
deal  to  do  with  the  shaping  of  our  State,  and  both  will 
undoubtedly  occur  again  in  this  region,  as  we  know  they 
do  at  the  present  time  in  various  parts  of  the  earth. 


Origin  of  the  Surface  Features  9 

The  lofty  mountain  ranges  and  volcanic  peaks  have 
been  formed  by  forces  within  the  earth.  The  complex 
detail,  however,  of  each  of  these  mountain  ranges,  in- 
cluding rugged  peaks,  deep  precipitous  canons  and  clus- 
tering foothills,  is  formed  by  the  disintegration  and 
erosion  of  the  solid  rocks.  The  crumbling  rock  materials 
are  carried  away  chiefly  by  running  water  and  deposited 
in  the  lowland  valleys,  which  were  formed  by  the  down 
folding  of  the  earth's  crust.  Thus  have  come  to  their 
present  state  the  great  plain-like  Sacramento-San  Joa- 
quin valley  (the  Great  Valley  of  California),  and  the 
many  larger  valleys  of  the  Coast  Ranges  and  of  Southern 
California. 


10  The    Geography    of   California 

CHAPTER  III. 
THE    COAST    LINE    OF    CALIFORNIA. 

The  whole  Pacific  region  of  both  North  and  South 
America  has  through  the  long  periods  of  the  past  been 
subject  to  many  and  severe  disturbances.  We  can  easily 
see  why  this  is  the  case,  because  lying  next  to  the  largest 
and  deepest  of  the  oceans  the  crust  must  be  weakened  by 
the  folding  along  the  continental  border.  Fissures  must 
frequently  form  in  this  line  of  weakness,  and  through 
these  fissures  flow  the  lavas  which  have  covered  so  many 
thousand  square  miles  and  built  up  the  lofty,  volcanoes. 

Changes  of  level  are  constantly  taking  place  along  this 
border  land,  and  the  effects  of  these  are  most  quickly  and 
readily  detected  at  the  meeting  point  with  the  water,  that 
is,  the  shore  line.  We  find  remarkable  illustrations  of 
both  elevation  and  of  submergence  of  the  coastal  region 
throughout  the  whole  length  of  California. 

The  particular  character  of  our  coast  as  it  exists  at 
present  has  been  determined  by  two  important  things. 
One  is  the  fact  of  recent  submergence  and  the  other  is 
the  direction  in  which  the  leading  mountain  ranges 
extend. 

Before  taking  up  in  detail  the  causes  which  have  made 
our  coast  line  what  it  is,  we  must  say  a  few  words  about 
the  distinction  to  be  made  between  continental  masses  and 
ocean  basins.  As  a  usual  thing  the  margins  of  the 
continents  are  marked  by  downward  folding  of  the  earth's 
crust  making  a  fairly  sharp  division  line  between  the 
continental  elevations  and  the  ocean  basins.    It  frequently 


The  Coast  Line  of  California  11 

happens,  however,  that  the  actual  meeting  point  of  the 
land  and  water  does  not  correspond  with  the  real  conti- 
nental border,  so  that  as  the  land  changes  its  level  the 
edges  of  the  continent  may  at  times  be  submerged.  This 
is  the  case  with  the  plateau  of  North  America  at  the 
present  time.  Soundings  by  the  Coast  Survey  have 
shown  that  off  California  there  is  a  submerged  shelf  over 
which  the  water  is  in  most  places  comparatively  shallow, 
and  outside  of  which  the  bottom  descends  very  rapidly 
to  the  abyssal  depths  of  the  Pacific.  Canon-like  depres- 
sions extend  from  near  the  land  across  these  shallows  to 
the  deep  water  outside.  We  can  explain  them  in  no  other 
way  than  by  assuming  that  they  represent  portions  of  the 
channels  of  ancient  rivers  which  were  submerged  by  the 
sinking  of  the  land. 

The  continental  plateau  of  which  we  have  been  speak- 
ing is  only  about  ten  miles  wide,  off  the  coast  of  Northern 
California.  Several  submerged  canons  extend  across  it, 
one  of  which  reaches  so  close  to  the  present  shore  that  a 
ship  taking  soundings  over  it  supposed,  from  the  depth, 
that  it  was  far  from  the  land,  and  so  approached  so  close 
to  the  rocks  that  it  came  near  being  wrecked. 

At  the  Golden  Gate  the  submerged  plateau  is  thirty 
miles  wide,  and  the  water  over  it  so  shallow  that  if  the 
land  were  to  rise  200  feet  one  could  walk  dry  shod  out 
to  the  Farallone  Islands.  These  stand  near  the  outer 
edge  of  the  plateau,  and  are  really  but  the  unsubmerged 
portions  of  a  line  of  low  granite  hills. 

The  largest  of  all  of  the  submerged  canons  occupies 
Monterey  Bay  and  extends  up  so  close  to  the  land  near 


12  The    Geography    of    California 

the  mouth  of  the  Salinas  river  that  a  wharf  and  shipping 
point  has  been  established  there. 

The  plateau  is  very  narrow  opposite  the  coast  of  Mon- 
terey county,  where  the  steep  slope  of  the  Santa  Lucia 
range  extends  downward  with  but  little  break  to  the 
depths  of  the  Pacific. 

Off  Santa  Barbara  the  plateau  rapidly  widens,  and  its 
outer  margin  is  marked  by  the  Channel  Islands.  Still 
farther  south  it  attains  a  width  of  150  miles,  while  the 
water  over  it  is  much  deeper.  Upon  this  portion  of  the 
plateau  are  mountain  peaks  several  of  which,  known 
as  San  Clemente,  Santa  Catalina,  and  San  Nicholas 
islands,  rise  above  the  present  sea  level,  while  others 
reach  only  part  way  to  the  surface,  and  are  known  as 
"banks." 

An  elevation  of  1000  feet  would  connect  the  Channel 
Islands  with  the  mainland,  and  that  the  land  did  actually 
stand  at  least  that  much  higher  in  very  recent  times  is 
shown  by  the  presence  of  bones  of  the  mastodon  and 
extinct  horse  upon  the  island  of  Santa  Rosa. 

Many  movements  have  affected  the  coast  of  California, 
and  we  have  evidence  that  the  land  not  only  stood  much 
higher  than  at  present,  but  also  that  at  one  time  it  was 
at  least  1500  feet  lower  than  it  is  now.  On  the  seaward 
face  of  the  hills  near  old  Fort  Ross,  a  few  miles  north  of 
San  Francisco,  there  is  a  remnant  of  an  ancient  boulder 
beach  having  an  elevation  of  about  1500  feet  above  the 
sea. 

Remains  of  wave-cut  cliffs  and  terraces  are  found  more 
or  less  distinct  along  the  whole  length  of  the  California 
coast.    These  are  beautifully  shown  upon  San  Clemente 


The  Coast  Line  of  California  13 

Island,  where  they  extend  up  to  nearly  1500  feet.  San 
Pedro  Hill,  near  Los  Angeles,  is  terraced  up  to  1200  feet, 
and  other  finely  preserved  terraces  are  found  upon  the 
coast  of  Santa  Cruz  and  San  Luis  Obispo  counties,  and 
ranging  in  height  from  10  to  more  than  700  feet.  Near 
Port  Harford  wonderful  wave-cut  caves  occur  in  a 
resistant  rock  10  feet  above  present  high  tide.  On  Pt. 
Loma,  near  San  Diego,  the  elevated  beaches  exposed  in 
the  present  cliffs  are  full  of  fossil  shells. 

Along  certain  portions  of  the  coast  the  mountains 
extend  directly  down  to  the  sea,  but  as  a  general  thing 
they  are  separated  from  the  sea  by  a  coastal  plain  varying 
from  a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  several  miles  in  width.  This 
plain  was  a  portion  of  the  marginal  sea  floor  at  one  time, 
and  is  due  in  part  to  the  leveling  action  of  the  waves, 
and  in  part  to  the  sediments  which  accumulated  upon 
this  floor. 

We  would  not  have  known  California  at  the  time  of 
which  we  have  spoken  when  the  land  was  so  deeply 
submerged.  All  the  rich  lowlands  were  flooded.  Impe- 
rial Valley  and  the  Valley  of  Los  Angeles  formed  deep 
bays.  The  Great  Valley  was  a  vast  inland  sea.  The  Coast 
Ranges  were  broken  up  into  peninsulas  and  islands,  and 
only  the  loftiest  points  of  the  present  islands  rose  above 
the  water.  Such  a  story  sounds  like  a  romance,  but  we 
have  clear  evidence  that  it  is  true. 

The  last  thing  that  happened  to  our  coast  was  a  sinking 
of  the  land,  and  we  are  not  sure  but  that  this  movement 
is  still  going  on.  This  recent  subsidence  has  flooded  the 
mouths  of  the  streams  along  the  whole  length  of  the 
State,  and  given  rise  to  the  present  bays  and  tidal  lagoons. 


14  The    Geography    of   California 

The  mouths  of  the  larger  streams  remained  open  because 
of  the  strong  currents,  but  the  waves  threw  up  bars 
across  the  mouths  of  most  of  them.  Then  began  the 
process  of  silting  up  the  lagoons  behind  the  bars,  and 
many  of  these  have  now  been  turned  into  marshes  or 
meadows. 

None  of  the  streams  thus  flooded  are  navigable  except 
the  Sacramento.  This  large  river,  flowing  down  with 
gentle  grade  through  the  large  valley  now  occupied  by 
San  Francisco  Bay,  was  drowned  completely  across  the 
Coast  Ranges  through  the  Strait  of  Carquinez,  and  is 
now  affected  by  the  tides  even  to  the  heart  of  the  Great 
Valley. 

A  little  distance  back  we  said  that  two'  things  had 
determined  the  character  of  the  coast  of  California.  The 
first  was  that  the  land  has  been  moving  up  and  down, 
but  now  occupies  a  sort  of  middle  position  between  great 
uplift  and  great  submergence.  The  second  factor  was 
the  character  and  direction  of  the  mountain  ranges ;  these 
are  nearly  parallel  with  the  shore,  but  exhibit  a  little  more 
westerly  trend,  lapping  past  each  other  en  eschelon.  The 
position  of  the  mountains,  then,  taken  in  connection  with 
the  fact  that  the  continental  border  is  not  deeply  sub- 
merged, has  resulted  in  a  fairly  even  coast  line  with  few 
good  harbors.  It  can  readily  be  seen  that  if  the  land 
were  submerged  500  to  1000  feet  more,  as  we  know  it 
has  been  in  the  past,  the  coast  line  would  be  radically 
changed  and  many  deep  bays  would  appear.  Such  a 
condition  would  facilitate  water  traffic,  but  would  destroy 
the  greater  portion  of  the  fertile  valley  lands  which  now 
furnish  us  with  the  main  body  of  our  agricultural  prod- 


The  Coast  Line  of  California  15 

ucts.  As  far  as  mining  would  be  concerned  the  greater 
portion  of  the  oil  fields  would  be  buried,  but  mining  for 
the  metals,  being  carried  on  mostly  in  the  mountains, 
would  not  be  affected. 

On  the  whole  we  can  say  that  our  race  has  come  into 
California  at  the  best  time  possible  for  its  expansion  and 
development.  The  vast  expanse  of  lowlands  is  more 
important  to  us  than  would  be  additional  harbors  result- 
ing from  a  sinking  of  the  coast. 


16  The    Geography    of   California 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  CLIMATE   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

-  In  our  geographic  study  of  California  we  cannot  dis- 
miss the  subject  of  climate  with  a  mere  statement  that  it 
rains  heavily  in  some  places  and  little  in  others;  that  it 
is  warm  in  one  part  and  cold  in  another.  We  want  to 
know  the  causes  governing  the  distribution  of  the  rain, 
why  it  rains  nearly  100  inches  each  year  upon  the  north- 
west coast,  and  an  average  of  only  two  or  three  inches 
in  the  basin  of  the  lower  Colorado.  We  want  to  know 
why  it  is  cool  upon  the  coast  and  hot  in  the  interior.  We 
want  to  find  out  what  part  latitude  plays,  what  is  the 
influence  of  the  coast  winds,  of  mountain  ranges  and  of 
elevation. 

In  seeking  to  learn  the  climate  of  a  country  we  first 
think  of  its  latitude,  since  that  is  usually  the  most 
important  factor.  In  the  case  of  California,  however,  this 
inquiry  does  not  help  us  very  much.  The  map  shows  that 
California  has  a  coast  line  nearly  1000  miles  in  length, 
reaching  through  ten  degrees  of  latitude,  and  we  would 
expect  that  its  northern  part,  which  is  nearly  the  latitude 
of  Chicago,  would  be  cold  in  winter,  and  that  the  southern 
part,  which  reaches  to  about  the  latitude  of  Savannah, 
would  be  very  warm,  but  in  reality  there  is,  near  the  coast, 
only  a  few  degrees  difference  in  temperature  between  the 
north  and  the  south.  Spring  fruits  appear  first,  and 
oranges  ripen  earlier  in  Northern  rather  than  in  Southern 
California.    We  shall  have  to  look  to  the  ocean,  the  wind 


The  Climate  of  California  17 

and  mountain  barriers  for  an  explanation  of  this  strange 
fact. 

.Not  only  is  there  little  difference  in  average  tempera- 
ture near  the  coast  through  many  degrees  of  latitude,  but 
we  encounter  the  farther  anomalous  fact  that  in  the 
course  of  only  a  very  few  miles  in  passing  along  any  one 
degree  of  latitude  from  our  large  valleys  to  the  mountain 
uplands  we  go  through  all  variations  of  climate  from  the 
sub-tropical  to  the  arctic. 

Now  with  regard  to  the  small  range  in  temperature 
as  we  go  north  or  south  along  the  coast,  we  know  that 
the  temperature  of  the  ocean  changes  but  little  from  win- 
ter to  summer.  We  also  know  that  California,  being  in 
the  temperate  zone,  is  situated  in  the  belt  of  prevailing 
westerly  winds.  The  temperature  of  the  air  over  the 
ocean  is  determined,  to  a  large  extent,  by  that  of  the 
water,  and  since  the  ocean  varies  but  little  throughout 
the  year,  and  the  winds  blow  mostly  from  the  ocean 
toward  the  land,  the  latter  is  going  to  be  cooler  in  summer 
and  warmer  in  winter  than  it  otherwise  would  be. 

If  it  were  not  for  mountain  barriers  the  cool  ocean 
winds  would  sweep  far  inland  and  temper  the  climate  of 
the  whole  State  to  a  greater  or  less  degree.  The  fact 
that  there  are  mountain  ranges  lying  close  to  and  parallel 
with  the  coast  has  resulted  not  only  in  a  deficiency  of  good 
harbors,  but  has  aided  in  making  the  climate  of  the  inte- 
rior subject  to  much  greater  extremes  of  temperature,  as 
well  as  decreasing  its  rainfall.  By  the  time  the  winds 
have  passed  the  Coast  Ranges  their  moisture  and  coolness 
have  been  greatly  reduced,  while  still  farther  eastward, 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  the  summers 


18  The    Geography    of   California 

are  not  only  extremely  hot,  but  the  lack  of  moisture 
makes  the  region  a  desert. 

The  influence  of  the  ocean  upon  the  adjacent  land  is 
increased  through  the  existence  of  fogs  during  the  dry 
season.  The  fogs  are  believed  to  be  due  to  a  descending 
current  of  warm  air  which  comes  in  contact  with  the  cool 
water  some  distance  off  the  land.  The  temperature  of 
the  air  is  thus  reduced  below  the  dew  point  and  heavy 
banks  of  fog  result.  These  fogs  are  carried  onto  the 
land  by  the  westerly  winds  which  blow  very  regularly 
throughout  the  summer  season.  The  fog  is  so  dense  and 
continuous  that  the  sun  is  often  nearly  or  quite  obscured 
for  days  at  a  time.  At  points  where  valleys  or  passes 
lead  into  the  warm  interior  a  strong  draft  is  set  up  which 
often  carries  the  fog  fifty  miles  inland.  The  fog  keeps 
the  coast  region  moist  and  green  longer  than  it  otherwise 
would  be,  and  thus  facilitates  dairying  and  the  growth  of 
many  crops. 

The  ocean  fogs  of  which  we  have  been  speaking  rarely 
reach  the  Great  Valley,  and  then  only  through  the  gap 
in  the  coast  mountains  occupied  by  the  Sacramento-San 
Joaquin  river.  As  a  result,  this  valley  is  so  protected 
from  the  ocean  influence  that  spring  opens  early  and  the 
summers  are  long  and  very  warm,  thus  favoring  the  full 
development  of  sub-tropical  fruits. 

Contrasting  the  Great  Valley  with  the  Los  Angeles- 
San  Bernardino  Valley,  we  find  that  the  latter  is  not  shut 
off  from  the  ocean  winds  by  mountains  so  that  the  coast 
fogs  spread  over  the  whole  of  this  great  region.  These 
fogs  so  temper  the  air  that  although  so  much  farther 


The  Climate  of  California  19 

south  we  find  that  many  fruits,  including  oranges,  do  not 
ripen  as  early  as  in  the  north  central  portion  of  the  State. 

In  general,  the  farther  we  go  from  the  ocean  the 
greater  are  the  extremes  in  temperature  between  night 
and  day,  between  summer  and  winter.  On  the  coast  the 
daily  range  of  temperature  is  often  less  than  10  degrees, 
while  in  the  valleys  of  the  interior  it  may  sink  to  40 
degrees  Fahrenheit  at  night,  and  rise  to  90  degrees  in 
the  daytime. 

We  all  know  that  during  the  summer,  except  for  the 
thunderstorms  in  the  mountains,  it  is  very  rare  that  any 
rain  falls  over  most  of  the  State,  although  the  air  sweep- 
ing in  from  the  sea  is  saturated  with  moisture,  as  shown 
by  the  fog  it  bears.  We  can  say,  then,  that  the  air  of  the 
coastal  regions  contains  more  moisture  during  the  period 
in  which  no  rain  falls  than  it  does  on  the  average  during 
the  rainy  period.  Now  we  can  legitimately  ask  the  ques- 
tion, Why  does  it  not  rain  in  summer  when  the  moist 
westerly  winds  are  strongest?  This  point  must  be  thor- 
oughly understood  if  we  would  appreciate  the  climatic 
conditions  under  which  we  are  living. 

In  the  first  place,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  there  is 
more  or  less  moisture  in  the  air  at  all  times,  but  it  is  only 
when  it  is  saturated  that  this  moisture  becomes  visible 
in  the  form  of  fog  or  clouds.  It  is  natural  to  conclude 
that  if  we  have  no  rains  in  the  summer  when  the  regu- 
larly westerly  winds  bring  in  the  dense  fog  banks,  we 
might  have  no  rain  at  all  if  these  winds  blew  through  the 
whole  year.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  we  must  introduce 
some  other  factor,  and  in  fact  our  rains  are  due  to  other 
and  very  different  causes. 


20  The    Geography    of   California 

In  order  to  have  rain,  air  must  not  only  be  cooled  to 
the  dew  point,  but  below  that  point,  and  the  only  thing 
which  will  do  that  is  exemplified  in  those  irregular  and 
violent  disturbances  of  the  atmosphere  which  set  up 
currents  carrying  the  moisture  laden  air  to  a  great  eleva- 
tion where  the  temperature  is  sufficiently  low  to  bring 
this  about. 

If  we  except  thunderstorms,  which  are  due  to  a  differ- 
ent condition,  we  can  say  that  rain  is  brought  about 
through  the  setting  up  of  a  spiral  whirling  motion  in 
the  atmosphere  very  similar  to  the  dust  whirl  so  common 
in  warm  summer  mornings.  The  storm  whirls  of  the 
atmosphere  are,  however,  almost  infinitely  greater  than 
the  dust  whirl,  being  sometimes  hundreds,  or  even 
several  thousand  miles  in  diameter.  These  great  whirls, 
although  much  larger  are  less  severe  than  the  tornado 
or  cyclone  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  are  commonly 
known  as  cyclonic  storms. 

The  most  of  these  great  cyclonic  whirls  which  bring 
our  rain  originate  somewhere  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean 
and  move  easterly  or  southeasterly  with  the  prevailing 
air  currents  of  the  temperate  zone.  They  are  much  more 
frequent  and  severe  in  winter  than  in  summer,  and  com- 
paratively few  strike  the  land  south  of  British  Columbia 
during  the  summer  season.  As  winter  approaches  these 
whirls  become  more  frequent  and  move  farther  south 
until  finally  they  encounter  and  pass  across  California. 
If  the  great  cyclonic  air  whirl  moves  slowly  the  storm 
lasts  for  several  days,  and  if  the  movement  of  the  air 
within  the  whirl  is  very  rapid  we  have  the  rain  accom- 


The  Climate  of  California  21 

panied  by  strong  winds.  Because  of  the  fact  that  the 
whirls  revolve  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  hands 
of  a  clock  the  coming  of  a  storm  is  usually  marked  by 
winds  blowing  from  some  southerly  point. 

With  the  passing  of  one  of  these  cyclonic  storms  the 
sky  clears  and  the  wind  changes  to  some  northerly  point 
and  blows  with  greater  or  less  intensity  for  some  time. 
These  cool,  dry  northerly  winds  mark  the  passage  of  an 
anti-cyclonic  whirl  in  which  the  air  currents  move  down- 
ward in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  cyclone,  and 
in  which  the  pressure  of  the  air  as  indicated  by  the 
barometer  is  abnormally  high.  The  storm  area,  on  the 
contrary,  is  characterized  by  low  barometer  owing  to 
the  upward  movement  of  the  air. 

Many  storms  which  pass  across  Northern  California 
fail  to  reach  the  southern  portion,  and  they  also  usually 
decrease  in  intensity  toward  the  south,  so  that  outside 
of  the  mountain  districts  the  southern  portion  of  the 
State  has  a  very  light  rainfall.  The  influence  of  moun- 
tains on  precipitation  is  extremely  important  because  of 
the  low  temperature  of  their  lofty  tops.  In  the  case  of 
many  storms  in  Southern  California  which  pass  over  the 
lowland  regions  with  but  a  slight  rainfall,  when  they 
encounter  the  mountains  there  is  a  heavy  fall  of  snow  or 
rain.  It  is  because  of  this  fact  that  we  find  such  great 
differences  in  the  rainfall  in  the  course  of  a  few  miles. 

During  the  summer  there  generally  exists  an  area  of 
low  air  pressure  over  the  Gulf  of  California,  and  here 
originate  the  "Sonora"  (so-called  from  the  province  of 
Sonora,  in  Mexico)  storms  which  bring  frequent  rains 
to  Southern  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.     These  storms 


22  The    Geography    of   California 

sometimes  reach  into  Southern  California  and  give  heavy 
summer  rains  on  the  mountains  and  in  the  deserts.  In 
fact  the  heaviest  rainfall  of  the  whole  year  may  occur 
upon  the  Colorado  desert  in  the  midst  of  summer. 

Summer  thunder  storms  are  frequent  in  all  the  higher 
mountain  regions  of  the  State.  They  are  partly  due  to 
the  low  pressure  areas  just  mentioned,  and  in  part  to 
the  influence  of  the  cool  mountain  tops  on  the  upward 
moving  air  currents.  They  add  quite  materially  to  the 
summer  water  supply. 

The  sea  fogs  which  have  been  discussed  in  a  previous 
paragraph  are  not  the  only  ones  which  are  experienced 
in  California.  During  the  clear  cool  periods  of  winter 
a  heavy  blanket  of  fog,  known  as  "tule  fog,"  occurs  in 
nearly  all  the  lowland  valleys  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 
This  generally  breaks  away  during  the  day,  but  in  the 
lower  San  Joaquin-Sacramento  Valley  it  may  last  con- 
tinuously for  weeks  at  a  time,  completely  shutting  out 
the  sun.  The  name  is  derived  from  its  prevalence  in  the 
tule  region  of  the  district  just  mentioned.  This  fog  is 
the  result  of  the  settling  of  the  heavier  and  cooler  air 
into  the  hollows  of  the  land  where  the  evaporation  from 
the  moist  earth  following  the  early  winter  rains  finally 
produces  a  saturated  condition. 

Destructive  winds  of  cyclonic  character  are  rarely 
known  in  California.  The  most  disagreeable,  as  well  as 
harmful,  winds  occur  in  the  spring  and  fall.  They  are 
dry  and  hot,  and  from  their  direction  are  known  as 
"northers."  In  Southern  California  this  wind  is  locally 
known  as  the  "Santa  Ana."  During  its  occurrence  the 
air  is  more  or  less  filled  with  dust,  and  for  this  reason 


The  Climate  of  California  23 

is  often  called  a  "dust  storm"  in  the  drier  parts  of  the 
State. 

From  what  has  preceded  it  can  be  seen,  in  some  degree 
at  least,  how  it  is  that  California  is  characterized  by  such 
a  great  variety  of  climates  and  productions.  It  is  a 
remarkable  and  interesting  fact  that  a  few  miles  travel 
will  take  one  from  the  sub-tropical  belt  of  oranges, 
lemons  and  figs,  to  the  temperate  belt  in  which  apples 
develop  their  best  qualities.  A  few  miles  will  also  take 
us  from  a  region  of  abundant  rainfall  to  typical  deserts 
where  nothing  can  be  raised  without  irrigation.  Here 
is  to  be  found  every  transition  between  arctic  cold  and 
tropic  heat,  impenetrable  vegetation  of  the  forests  of 
the  Northwest  and  the  barren  desert  of  the  Southeast. 


24  The  Geography  of  California 

CHAPTER  V. 
NATURAL   RESOURCES. 

Water  Supply. — Owing  to  the  long  dry  summers  in 
California  and  the  light  rainfall  in  certain  portions,  it  is 
realized  more  fully  here  than  in  the  central  and  eastern 
portion  of  our  country  how  much  depends  upon  the 
conservation  and  proper  use  of  our  water  resources. 
There  are  large  areas  in  California  where  it  is  impossible 
for  people  to  live  and  cultivate  the  soil,  be  that  soil  ever 
so  fertile,  without  first  giving  attention  to  the  develop- 
ment of  a  water  supply.  Even  in  those  parts  of  the  State 
where  the  rainfall  is  usually  sufficient  for  the  common 
farm  crops,  there  are  years  in  which  the  rain  does  not 
come,  and  without  irrigation  they  would  be  a  failure. 

Rain  is  needed  most  during  the  spring  and  summer, 
but  as  we  have  already  seen,  the  greater  part  of  the 
yearly  precipitation  comes  during  the  winter.  On  the 
high  mountains  this  falls  in  the  form  of  snow  which  does 
not  immediately  melt  and  run  away,  but  lasts  until  the 
warm  spring  sun  shines  upon  it.  This  helps  greatly  in 
keeping  up  the  flow  of  the  streams  when  the  water  is 
needed. 

In  the  warmer  lowland  regions  of  the  State  the  greater 
part  of  the  water  which  does  not  soak  into  the  ground 
immediately  runs  off  and  may  cause  serious  floods.  In 
many  parts  of  the  State  it  is  extremely  important  to 
preserve  the  flood  waters,  and  as  the  population  increases 
this  will  become  more  and  more  necessary.  There  are 
large  areas  in  Southern  California  which  have  almost 


Natural  Resources  25 

reached  the  limit  of  development  with  the  present  avail- 
able supply  of  water.  The  great  quantities  of  flood 
waters  which  reach  the  sea  after  the  heavy  rains  should 
be  stored  in  reservoirs  for  summer  use,  thus  making 
possible  a  much  greater  population  and  wealth. 

The  three  largest  rivers  of  the  State  are  the  Colorado, 
the  San  Joaquin-Sacramento,  and  the  Klamath.  The 
use  of  the  Colorado  for  irrigation  in  California  is  prac- 
tically limited  to  the  Imperial  Valley  and  the  vicinity  of 
Yuma.  The  Klamath  might  be  used  in  Shasta  Valley 
to  great  advantage,  but  the  most  of  its  course  is  through 
mountains.  The  San  Joaquin-Sacramento  river,  with 
its  vast  plain-like  basin  filled  with  fertile  soil,  and  its 
innumerable  branches  heading  in  lofty  mountains  cov- 
ered with  snow  until  late  in  the  season,  is  the  most 
important  source  of  water  for  irrigation  of  any  stream 
in  the  State.  The  Sacramento  branch  of  this  river,  occu- 
pying the  northern  arm  of  the  Great  Valley,  carries  an 
abundance  of  water  for  all  the  future  needs  of  irrigation 
upon  the  adjoining  slopes,  and  in  addition  possesses  a 
navigable  channel  as  far  north  as  Red  Bluff.  The  San 
Joaquin  and  other  streams  of  the  southern  arm,  while 
traversing  as  large  if  not  larger  area  which  will  be 
dependent  on  irrigation  for  its  full  development,  carry 
less  water  than  will  be  needed. 

The  San  Gabriel  and  the  Santa  Ana  are  the  most 
important  streams  of  Southern  California,  and  in  the 
summer  are  wholly  used  for  irrigation.  The  Tejunga 
river  is  also  an  important  stream,  as  it  forms  the  real 
source  of  the  Los  Angeles  river  which  supplies  the  city 
with  water.     Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  forests  have 


26  The   Geography   of   California 

been  so  largely  removed  by  fire  from  the  steep  slopes  of 
the  San  Gabriel  range  the  San  Gabriel  and  Tejunga 
rivers  run  very  low  in  the  summer.  Reforestation  is  an 
extremely  important  problem  in  this  region.  The  Santa 
Ana  river,  rising  in  the  more  lofty  San  Bernardino 
range,  has  a  better  summer  flow.  The  summer  flow  is 
further  increased  by  the  extensive  deposits  of  boulders 
and  gravel  in  the  form  of  moraines  left  by  ancient  gla- 
ciers on  San  Gorgonio  peak.  These  hold  the  waters 
from  the  melting  snows  and  give  them  off  slowly  through 
the  summer. 

Owens  river  is  the  largest  stream  in  the  Great  Basin, 
and  is  supplied  by  the  melting  of  the  snows  on  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas.  The  water  of  this  river 
has  in  part  been  used  for  irrigation,  and  in  part  gone  to 
supply  that  great  sheet  of  alkaline  water  known  as  Owens 
Lake.  An  aqueduct  is  now  being  constructed  to  carry  a 
part  of  the  water  of  this  river  200  miles  across  the 
Mohave  Desert  and  intervening  mountains  to  Los 
Angeles.  It  is  the  most  wonderful  undertaking  of  its 
kind  in  the  world. 

The  Mohave  river  is  another  desert  stream  of  consid- 
erable size  which  rises  in  the  San  Bernardino  Mountains 
and  flows  northerly  toward  Death  Valley. 

The  underground  water  supply  obtained  from  wells 
at  first  thought  seems  inexhaustible.  Throughout  all  the 
valleys  and  lowland  regions  wells  furnish  large  quantities 
of  water.  In  most  places  it  has  to  be  pumped,  but  in 
some  parts  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  the  Valley  of  Los 
Angeles  and  the  Salton  Basin,  or  Imperial  Valley,  the 


Natural  Resources  27 

water  flows  out  of  the  top  of  the  well  and  is  known, 
then,  as  artesian  water. 

The  underground  waters  have  accumulated  from  rains 
falling  upon  the  surface  and  slowly  sinking  down  through 
the  gravels  and  sands  of  the  valley  floor,  but  are  really 
not  inexhaustible.  In  the  fruit  growing  districts  of 
Southern  California,  where  many  wells  have  been  put 
down,  the  water  level  is  gradually  being  lowered,  so  that 
not  only  is  less  water  obtained,  but  the  wells  have  to  be 
deeper. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  precipitation  is  greater 
upon  mountains  than  on  lowlands,  and  that  much  of  it 
falls  as  snow.  The  flow  of  the  streams  is  thus  made 
more  even  than  if  all  came  as  rain.  Glaciers  once  covered 
the  higher  mountains  of  the  State,  particularly  the  cen- 
tral and  northern  portions,  and  left  vast  deposits  of 
gravel  and  boulders,  which  further  aid  in  the  retention 
of  the  water  from  the  melting  snows.  These  deposits 
also  often  form  dams  across  the  canons,  giving  rise  to 
lakes  which  are  a  very  important  agent  in  equalizing 
the  flow  of  streams. 

Except  for  the  Sacramento  river  the  streams  of  Cali- 
fornia are  of  very  little  use  for  navigation.  Dredging 
out  of  the  channels  of  both  the  Sacramento  and  San 
Joaquin  Valleys  should  be  of  great  assistance  to  the 
inland  development  of  California. 

The  streams  of  California,  rising  as  they  do  in  high 
mountains  and  flowing  with  rapids  and  waterfalls  down 
to  the  valleys,  are  coming  to  be  very  important  as  sources 
of  power  for  commercial  and  manufacturing  purposes. 
There  is  hardly  any  limit  to  the  electrical  power  which 


28  The    Geography    of    California 

can  be  developed  from  them,  and  which  now  can  be 
transmitted  to  any  point  where  we  wish  to  use  it. 

Soil. — The  surface  of  California  is  marked  by  a  great 
variety  of  soils,  a  fact  due  partly  to  the  different  condi- 
tions under  which  they  were  formed  and  partly  to  differ- 
ences in  the  underlying  rocks  from  which  they  were 
derived.  The  mountain  sides  and  foothills  where  the 
slopes  are  not  too  precipitous  are  covered  with  a  soil 
derived  from  the  underlying  bedrock.  This  is  known  as 
residual  soil  because  it  is  what  remains  when  the  con- 
stituents of  the  rocks  decay  and  crumble.  These  soils 
are,  as  a  rule,  quite  thin,  with  here  and  there  masses  of 
rock  projecting  up  through  them.  Although m fertile,  and 
extensively  cultivated,  residual  soils  are  not  as  deep  or  as 
rich  as  the  valley  soils.  Where  it  is  too  rocky  and  the 
surface  is  too  steep,  these  soils  are  devoted  to  grazing 
rather  than  to  agriculture.  This  fact  illustrates  the 
control  which  physical  conditions  exert  upon  life. 

For  ages  the  rocks  of  the  highlands  have  been  crumb- 
ling and  the  streams  have  been  carrying  the  finer  and 
richer  particles,  as  well  as  the  soluble  constituents,  to  the 
valleys  or  the  ocean.  The  valley  soils  are  therefore  deep 
and  extremely  rich  in  plant  food.  In  some  portions  of 
the  San  Joaquin,  Imperial,  and  other  valleys,  there  are 
such  large  quantities  of  soluble  materials,  which  are 
usually  known  as  alkalies,  that  it  is  difficult  to  raise  crops 
without  first  neutralizing  or  removing  a  portion  of  the 
alkali.  Such  soils  were  formed  in  the  beds  of  ancient 
lakes  or  marshy  flats  where  the  waters  as  they  dried  up 
left  the  substances  which  were  in  solution  mixed  with 
the  silt. 


Natural  Resources  29 

The  soils  of  the  valleys  vary  with  the  conditions  under 
which  they  were  formed.  There  is  ( 1 )  the  fine  alluvium 
of  the  flood  plains  which  is  very  rich  and  sometimes 
hundreds  of  feet  deep.  Such  a  soil  is  well  shown  in  the 
banks  of  New  river,  which  cut  a  deep  channel  across  the 
Colorado  Desert  (Imperial  Valley)  at  the  time  of  the 
last  overflow  of  the  Colorado  river.  The  banks  are  in 
some  places  80  feet  high,  and  consist  of  alternating  layers 
of  light  and  dark  silt  from  top  to  bottom. 

The  major  portion  of  the  valley  slopes,  particularly  in 
Southern  California,  consist  of  coarser  material  deposited 
in  form  of  debris  fans  below  the  points  where  the  streams 
issue  from  the  mountains.  These  soils,  taken  together 
with  their  position,  offer  the  best  conditions  for  the 
growing  of  citrus  fruits. 

The  soils  of  the  coastal  region  are  usually  a  fine  sandy 
loam.  They  may  be  confined  to  a  narrow  strip  between 
the  mountains  and  the  sea,  or  as  about  San  Francisco 
Bay  and  in  the  region  south  of  Los  Angeles,  cover  a  large 
extent  of  country.  The  clifTs  along  the  Alameda  and 
Berkeley  shores,  as  well  as  those  at  Long  Beach,  give 
good  exposures  of  these  soils. 

Soils  are  heavy  if  they  contain  a  large  amount  of  clay, 
and  light  if  there  is  much  sand  in  them.  Consequently, 
in  Southern  California,  where  the  rocks  are  largely  gran- 
itic, we  find  that  light  soils  predominate,  while  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Coast  Ranges  and  in  portions  of  the  Great 
Valley  the  soils  are  more  often  heavy  and  are  known  as 
"adobe"  soils.  The  latter,  while  rich,  are  more  difficult 
to  work  than  the  light  soils. 


30  The    Geography    of   California 

Some  plants  require  a  heavy  soil,  others  require  a  light 
soil  to  do  well,  and  some  thrive  where  there  is  much 
alkali,  but  as  a  rule  in  California  the  most  important 
factors  are  climatic.  We  take  into  account  first,  then, 
both  the  moisture  or  water  supply  available,  and  the 
temperature  conditions. 

Vegetation. — The  belt  of  coniferous  forests  extend- 
ing from  California  northward  through  Oregon  and 
Washington  is  the  finest  in  all  the  world,  both  in  regard 
to  size  and  the  variety  of  trees  represented.  For  the 
growth  of  such  luxuriant  forests  there  is  needed  a  certain 
amount  of  moisture,  as  well  as  a  given  range  of  tempera- 
ture conditions.  Trees  are  not  found  in  the  arctic  climate 
of  the  lofty  mountain  tops,  nor  in  the  extreme  heat  and 
dryness  of  the  arid  and  semi-arid  regions.  The  forest 
map  of  California  is  very  interesting,  for  it  shows  how 
greatly  the  mountainous  areas  affect  the  climate,  and 
through  that  the  distribution  of  the  trees.  Each  climatic 
zone,  from  the  sub-tropical  of  the  warmer  valleys  to  the 
boreal  or  arctic  on  the  mountain  tops,  is  characterized 
by  its  peculiar  vegetation.  In  the  deserts  even,  where 
the  rainfall  is  less  than  five  inches  annually,  and  some- 
times a  whole  year  passing  without  any  rain,  there  is  an 
abundance  of  vegetation  of  a  certain  kind.  The  only 
parts  of  California  where  to  the  ordinary  observer  there 
is  no  vegetation  at  all,  are  the  summits  of  those  moun- 
tains which  rise  above  the  timber  line,  the  alkali  sinks 
of  some  of  the  desert  regions,  and  the  surface  of  recent 
lava  flows. 

The  forests  are  found  within  certain  well  defined  limits. 
The  upper  limit,  determined  by  the  increasing  cold  of  the 


Natural  Resources  31 

lofty  altitudes,  is  commonly  called  the  timber  line.  This 
line  varies  with  the  exposure,  being  higher  upon  a  south- 
erly slope  than  upon  a  northerly  one.  It  also  varies  with 
the  latitude,  gradually  rising  toward  the  south  and  sink- 
ing toward  the  north.  In  the  latter  direction  it  gradually 
approaches  the  sea  level,  and  beyond  that  point  we  find 
vast  plains  and  tundras  devoid  of  trees.  The  timber  line 
upon  Mt.  Shasta  reaches  about  9500  feet.  As  we  go 
toward  the  southern  end  of  the  State  it  is  found  higher 
and  higher,  until  upon  San  Gorgonio,  the  highest  peak 
of  the  San  Bernardino  Range,  which  rises  11,485  feet,  the 
timber  line  is  barely  reached.  The  timber  line,  then,  is 
about  2000  feet  higher  in  the  southern  end  of  the  State 
than  in  the  northern. 

The  lower  limit  of  coniferous  forest  growth  upon  the 
mountain  slopes  is  determined  by  the  lack  of  moisture  and 
is  sometimes  called  the  dry  timber  line.  While  there  is 
but  little  of  the  State  which  rises  above  the  cold  timber 
line,  there  is  a  very  large  area  which  sinks  below  the  dry 
timber,  line. 

Nearly  all  the  valleys  of  the  Coast  Ranges  and  portions 
of  the  Sacramento  are  dotted  with  oaks  of  which  that 
commonly  known  as  the  white  oak  is  the  most  abundant. 
As  we  go  up  the  mountain  slopes  these  finally  give  place 
to  the  black  oak  which  is  most  abundant  in  the  lower 
portion  of  the  coniferous  belt.  Considering  now  the 
coniferous  forest,  and  this  is  the  one  which  is  by  far  the 
most  important  because  it  forms  the  basis  of  the  lumber 
industry,  we  find  the  trees  growing  at  sea  level  from 
about  the  middle  of  the  coastal  region  northward.  In 
the  drier  interior  the  lower  limit  is  higher,  being  in  the 


32  The    Geography    of   California 

foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas  at  an  elevation  of  about 
2000  feet.  As  we  go  southward  this  lower  limit  of  the 
coniferous  forest  rapidly  rises,  until  we  find  the  lowest 
of  the  lumber  producing  trees,  the  yellow  pine,  growing 
at  an  elevation  of  5000  to  6000  feet.  Upon  the  desert 
slopes  the  pifion  pine  is  found  lower  than  the  yellow  pine, 
and  upon  the  San  Gabriel  and  San  Bernardino  ranges 
another  conifer  known  as  the  big  cone  spruce  grows  in 
the  drier  zone  below  the  yellow  pine. 

The  zonal  distribution  of  the  different  species  in  the 
coniferous  forest  is  finely  shown  upon  the  slopes  of  the 
Sierra  Nevadas.  Passing  through  the  belt  of  oaks  we 
come  to  the  digger  pine.  Above  this  is  thev  great  yellow 
pine  belt  in  which  are  found  many  cedar  and  spruce. 
This  zone  shades  into  the  main  forest  belt  of  sugar  pine, 
spruce  fir,  and  in  the  central  Sierras  the  Big  Trees 
{sequoia  gigantea),  and  extends  up  to  an  elevation  of 
nearly  9000  feet.  Now  we  find  ourselves  in  a  forest 
formed  largely  of  tamarack  pine,  red  fir,  white  pine, 
mountain  juniper,  and  finally  alpine  hemlock,  and  last  of 
all,  dwarf  white  pine. 

The  most  important  lumber  tree  of  the  Coast  ranges 
is  the  redwood  (sequoia  setup ervir ens),  which  is  found 
from  Monterey  county  north  to  the  Oregon  line.  The 
belt  is  an  irregular  one,  the  trees  reaching  their  greatest 
development,  near,  though  not  directly  on  the  coast.  The 
most  important  forests  are  in  Humboldt  and  Mendocino 
counties,  where  they  reach  back  20  miles  from  the  coast. 
The  sheltered  canons  where  there  is  abundant  moisture 
contain  the  largest  trees. 


Natural  Resources  33 

The  redwoods  and  Big  Trees  are  wonderfully  inter- 
esting, not  only  for  their  great  size  and  the  age  which 
they  reach,  some  being  estimated  to  be  as  much  as  4000 
years  old,  but  also  for  their  ancient  history.  The  Sequoia 
is  one  of  the  oldest  of  tree  genera,  and  the  two  California 
species  are,  with  one  exception,  the  only  living  repre- 
sentatives of  a  once  widely  distributed  genus.  It  is 
probable  that  the  Sequoia  has  inhabited  this  region  for 
ages,  since  among  some  fossils  which  have  been  found 
in  shales  upon  the  coast  of  Monterey  county  there  are 
forms  which  appear  to  represent  the  cones  and  needles 
of  this  tree.  These  shales  belong  to  one  of  the  most 
ancient  rock  formations  of  the  Coast  Ranges,  and  the 
discovery  mentioned  carries  the  genus  back  millions  of 
years.  It  also  tells  us  that  very  long  ago  there  was  a 
forest  of  Sequoias  in  the  region  of  the  present  Santa 
Lucia  Range. 

The  magnificent  forests  of  California  are  clearly  related 
to  certain  definite  temperature  and  moisture  conditions, 
and  the  latter  are  dependent  upon  latitude,  elevation  and 
distance  from  the  ocean.  Consequently  we  see  that  in 
Southern  California  the  forest  areas  are  limited  to  the 
higher  slopes  of  the  different  mountain  ranges,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  the  San  Gabriel,  San  Jacinto,  and 
San  Bernardino  groups.  As  we  go  northward  to  the 
Sierra  Nevadas  we  find  a  great  block  of  lofty  mountains 
which  offers  an  immense  area  lying  between  the  arctic 
cold  of  its  crest  and  the  warm  dry  expanse  of  the  Great 
Valley  which  is  heavily  timbered.  This  belt  of  timber 
varies   from   30  to   50  miles   wide,   and   extends   north 


34  The  Geography   of  California 

into  the  Cascade  Range  and  westward  through  the  Klam- 
ath mountains  to  the  ocean. 

We  must  not  think  that  these  coniferous  forests  are 
the  only  ones  of  importance  in  California.  There  remain 
the  broad-leaved  trees  which  although  of  relatively  less 
importance  than  in  the  eastern  part  of  our  country  are 
nevertheless  of  great  value.  The  broad-leaved  trees  mix 
somewhat  with  the  coniferous  forests  along  their  lower 
limit,  as  is  shown  particularly  in  the  case  of  the  oaks, 
but  in  general  they  are  scattered  over  the  drier  and 
warmer  slopes  of  the  foothills  and  valleys.  There  are 
many  species  of  the  oak,  among  which  might  be  men- 
tioned the  black  oak,  which  is  found  in  the  lower  edge  of 
the  coniferous  forest;  the  white  oak,  which  is  scattered 
over  the  Sacramento  Valley  and  the  foothills  and  valleys 
of  the  Coast  Ranges ;  the  tan-bark  oak,  live  oak,  etc.  The 
oaks  give  the  valleys  a  beautiful  park-like  appearance, 
and  add  much  to  the  attractiveness  of  this  region.  Upon 
the  moist  foothill  slopes  of  the  northern  half  of  the  State 
occur  the  laurel  and  madrone.  The  alder  marks  the 
streams  in  the  mountains,  and  the  sycamore  is  found 
along  their  courses  in  the  central  and  southern  coastal 
regions.  Scattered  cottonwoods  occur  near  the  streams 
in  drier  and  more  desert  parts. 

Upon  many  mountain  slopes  where  there  have  been 
fires,  or  the  soil  is  too  poor,  or  the  rainfall  is  insufficient 
to  grow  trees,  there  is  found  a  growth  of  shrubs  com- 
monly known  as  chaparral.  Among  these  are  the  cha- 
miso,  California  lilac,  manzanita,  buckthorn,  sagebrush, 
and  scrub  oak.     Upon  some  mountains,  particularly  in 


Natural  Resources  35 

Southern  California,  this  growth  is  so  dense  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  make  one's  way  through  it. 

Previous  to  the  coming  of  the  whites  the  Indians 
burned  the  surface  over  in  order  to  keep  down  the  brush 
so  that  the  game  might  be  seen.  This  destroyed  almost 
all  the  young  trees,  and  if  it  had  been  continued  would 
have  resulted  in  the  final  disappearance  of  the  forests. 
Since  the  Indians  disappeared  there  has  sprung  up  a 
dense  young  growth  of  trees  and  brush,  and  the  problem 
of  protection  from  fire  is  becoming  a  serious  one. 

Fires,  together  with  the  ax  of  the  lumberman,  are  fast 
depleting  our  valuable  forests.  The  most  valuable  por- 
tions have  passed  into  the  hands  of  lumber  companies 
which  as  a  rule  have  regard  only  to  the  needs  of  the 
present,  and  leave  the  cut-over  areas  almost  as  barren 
as  a  desert.  Following  the  destructive  work  of  the 
lumbermen  the  rains  wash  the  slopes,  carrying  away  the 
humus  and  soil,  and  silting  up  our  streams  and  bays. 
The  long  dry  summers  of  California  make  it  very  neces- 
sary that  we  use  every  means  in  our  power  to  increase 
the  flow  of  the  streams  during  this  period,  and  irrepara- 
ble damage  will  soon  be  done  if  we  do  not  take  energetic 
steps  to  preserve  the  slopes,  about  the  headwaters  of  the 
streams,  in  their  natural  condition. 

An  important  step  has  been  taken  by  the  Government 
in  the  withdrawal  of  all  its  remaining  timber  lands  from 
sale,  and  the  formation  of  these  into  National  Forests. 
The  cutting  of  trees  on  these  forests  will  be  conducted 
with  great  care  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  surface  and  kill 
the  young  growth.  These  forests  are  patrolled  by  rang- 
ers whose  business  is  especially  to  look  out  for  fires  and 


36  The    Geography    of   California 

protect  the  growth  in  every  way  from  devastation.  The 
National  Forests  now  include  nearly  all  the  timbered 
lands  of  the  State  which  have  not  passed  into  private 
possession. 

In  addition  to  the  areas  included  in  the  National  For- 
ests certain  other  tracts  noted  for  their  scenery  or  natural 
curiosities  have  been  set  aside  as  National  Parks.  The 
largest  and  most  important  is  the  Yosemite.  There  are 
in  addition  to  the  Sequoia  and  General  Grant  parks,  and 
in  the  Coast  Ranges  near  San  Francisco,  Muir  Woods, 
containing  giant  redwoods.  The  State  controls  one  large 
park  known  as  the  Big  Basin,  in  the  Santa  Cruz  moun- 
tains, where  there  are  many  great  redwood  trees. 

The  parks  are  to  be  maintained  forever  as  public 
grounds  in  which  no  trees  may  be  cut,  and  in  which  the 
animals  are  also  protected.  Unless  we  can  arouse  a  more 
general  sentiment  in  favor  of  the  preservation  of  our 
scenic  beauties  and  wonders  these  parks,  quite  limited 
in  area,  are  the  only  portions  of  our  wonderfully  inter- 
esting and  attractive  mountains  which  will  pass  down 
to  our  descendants  unmutilated. 

Those  parts  of  the  State  too  dry  for  forest  growth  are 
characterized  by  many  peculiar  and  interesting  forms  of 
vegetation.  Where  the  rainfall  is  not  too  small  the  val- 
leys and  gentler  hill  slopes  are  covered  with  various  kinds 
of  grasses,  and  in  the  spring  are  brightly  colored  by 
many  wild  flowers.  Deserts  cover  fully  one-third  of  the 
area  of  California,  and  it  is  in  them  that  the  most  striking 
forms  of  plant  life  occur.  The  surface  of  the  desert  is 
usually  covered  with  shrubs  of  various  kinds  which  have 
become  adapted  to  the  dry  hot  air  and  small  rainfall. 


Natural  Resources  37 

The  Mexican  creosote  bush,  scattered  over  the  Mohave 
Desert,  is  a  good  example.  Its  leaves  have  become  very 
small  and  its  surface  is  covered  with  a  resinous  substance 
which  prevents  the  evaporation  of  the  moisture  from  the 
stems.  Other  plants,  such  as  the  cactus,  have  developed 
a  fleshy  body  and  spines  in  the  place  of  leaves. 

In  the  Mohave  Desert  there  are  vast  groves  of  a  tree- 
like yucca,  and  in  some  of  the  canons  upon  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  San  Jacinto  mountains  occurs  the  native 
Washington  palm  so  much  used  in  garden  decoration. 
The  mesquite,  a  peculiar  thorny  shrub  bearing  pods,  is 
found  growing  along  the  desert  water  courses. 

We  find  in  the  semi-desert  valleys  and  lower  mountain 
slopes  a  very  widespread  shrub  known  as  sagebrush. 
There  are  a  number  of  species,  and  one  that  grows  to 
almost  the  proportions  of  a  tree.  The  white  sage,  abun- 
dant in  Southern  California,  is  valuable  for  bees,  its 
blossoms  furnishing  the  best  of  honey. 

The  desert  slopes  exhibit  a  zonal  arrangement  of  their 
vegetation  similar  to  that  of  the  high  mountains.  In  the 
more  arid  portions  of  the  Mohave  Desert  the  chief  shrub 
is  the  Mexican  creosote  bush.  Upon  higher  slopes, 
where  the  rainfall  is  a  little  greater,  we  find  the  yucca. 
Ascending  the  slopes  of  the  low  mountains  we  come  upon 
the  desert  juniper.  Upon  the  higher  mountains  we  finally 
reach  the  scrubby  pinon  pines,  and  wherever  there  are 
any  mountains  with  sufficient  height  and  rainfall  we  may 
look  for  yellow  pine. 

The  rainfall  of  the  desert  is  very '  irregular  in  time  of 
occurrence,  as  well  as  in  quantity.  It  would  be  impossible 
for  the  desert  shrubs  to  exist  if  they  had  not  become 


38  The    Geography    of    California 

wonderfully  adapted  to  going  without  water,  for  some- 
times two  years  pass  without  any  rain.  Then,  again,  at 
times  during  the  summer,  heavy  thunderstorms,  which 
we  call  "cloudbursts"  because  of  their  severity,  flood 
miles  of  country  with  water.  In  the  desert  we  have  forc- 
ibly presented  to  our  attention  the  important  part  which 
plants  and  soil  take  in  keeping  the  water  from  running 
off  too  rapidly.  Here  there  is  little  besides  bare  rock  to 
restrain  the  water  upon  the  mountain  slopes,  and  it  runs 
off  in  floods  and  leaves  the  surface  in  a  short  time  as  dry 
as  before. 

Occasionally  there  are  spring  rains  which  start  into 
life  innumerable  seeds  hidden  in  the  sands.  -In  the  course 
of  a  few  weeks  the  barren  sandy  desert  is  covered  with 
a  luxuriant  carpet  of  many-colored  flowers.  In  places 
their  tints  massed  together  may  be  seen  from  a  distance 
of  five  or  six  miles.  These  flowers  mature  quickly,  and 
with  the  coming  of  hot  weather  the  seeds  are  dropped 
into  the  sand  and  the  dried  plants  are  blown  away  by 
the  wind,  and  one  would  never  suspect  they  had  existed. 

Animal  Life. — Few  of  us  have  any  realization  of  the 
wealth  of  animal  life  in  California  sixty  years  ago.  We 
have  not  only  crowded  the  Indians  aside  and  nearly 
exterminated  them,  but  we  have  driven  out  the  wild 
animals  as  well.  We  seem  actuated  with  a  desire  to 
destroy. 

Early  explorers  and  settlers  have  left  records,  telling 
of  the  variety  and  abundance  of  wild  life,  which  almost 
pass  comprehension.  Bear,  including  grizzlies,  abounded 
through  all  the  region.  Elk  and  antelope  roamed  the 
valleys  in  countless  numbers,  and  the  deer  were  easier 


Natural  Resources  39 

to  approach  than  the  Spanish  cattle  that  had  gone  wild. 
At  certain  seasons  geese  and  ducks  almost  darkened  the 
sky. 

We  are  not  certain  now  that  there  are  any  grizzlies 
left  in  the  State.  The  antelope  and  elk  are  practically 
gone,  and  geese  and  ducks  are  becoming  scarcer  every 
year.  We  are  trying  to  protect  the  deer,  but  they  may 
go  the  way  of  the  other  large  game. 

Unless  every  one  is  aroused  to  the  importance  of  pro- 
tecting what  remains  of  our  wild  animals  and  birds  one 
of  the  great  attractions  of  life  in  the  open  will  be  gone. 
We  must  see  that  the  laws  which  have  been  passed  for 
their  protection  are  enforced.  The  main  hope  lies  in 
the  education  of  the  school  children  through  the  work  in 
Nature  Study.  We  must  show  them  not  only  the  impor- 
tance of  preserving  our  forests,  but  also  of  saving  the 
wild  things  which  inhabit  them.  We  must  preserve  the 
birds  and  animals,  not  only  for  their  economic  value, 
but  also  because  they  appeal  to  our  love  of  nature. 

Many  animals  which  wandered  over  the  State  a  few 
thousand  years  ago  are  now  extinct  and  are  known  only 
through  their  fossil  remains.  The  most  interesting 
remains,  in  the  form  of  vertebrate  skeletons,  have  been 
found  in  some  tar  springs  a  few  miles  west  of  Los 
Angeles.  Among  these  are  giant  wolves,  sabre-toothed 
tigers,  horses,  bison,  camels,  elephants,  sloths,  etc. 

The  lower  animals  are  affected  more  readily  by  climatic 
changes  and  changes  in  food  supply  than  are  men,  for 
they  are  not  able  to  migrate  as  intelligently.  Each 
species  or  group  of  animals  is  adapted  to  certain  condi- 
tions,  and   when   these   conditions   change   the   animals 


40  The    Geography    of   California 

either  have  to  migrate,  to  some  region  where  conditions 
are  similar  to  those  they  are  accustomed  to,  or  die.  From 
the  numbers  and  species  represented  in  the  fossil  remains 
referred  to  we  must  conclude,  then,  that  there  have  been 
remarkable  modifications  in  our  Pacific  Coast  climate  in 
very  recent  times. 

The  animals  are  distributed  over  the  State  in  climatic 
zones  as  are  the  plants,  although  being  able  to  migrate 
with  the  seasons  their  boundaries  are  not  as  well  marked 
as  are  those  of  plants.  The  animals  of  the  desert,  like 
the  plants  of  the  desert,  have  been  strangely  modified  to 
suit  the  demands  of  their  environment.  One  of  the  most 
remarkable  examples  of  these  is  the  desert  tortoise,  which 
has  developed  two  water  pockets  so  that  it  can  go  months, 
and  perhaps  years,  without  replenishing  its  supply.  It  is 
frequently  found  many  miles  from  any  water. 

Minerals. — A  mere  description  of  the  minerals,  or  in 
fact  of  any  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  State,  is  not 
geography.  It  is  only  when  we  consider  them  in  the  light 
of  the  conditions  under  which  they  occur,  why  they  are 
distributed  as  they  are,  and  what  makes  them  commer- 
cially valuable,  that  their  study  can  properly  be  consid- 
ered geography.  A  mere  description  of  California  with- 
out entering  into  causes  and  relations  conveys  little  real 
information.  The  relations  exhibited  by  the  various  geo- 
graphic factors  in  the  region  which  we  are  studying  is 
so  intimate  and  so  marked  that  we  must  make  use  of 
them  in  order  to  make  our  discussion  intelligible. 

It  is  rather  peculiar,  conceding  that  the  stories  of  great 
wealth  of  gold  and  silver  led  the  Spaniards  to  send  expe- 
ditions into  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  that  they  made  no 


Natural  Resources  41 

serious  effort  to  explore  California  with  this  object  in 
view.  It  is  also  interesting  to  note  that  many  exploring 
expeditions  had  visited  the  State  without  getting  any 
hint  of  the  riches  in  the  gravels  of  the  Sierra  streams. 
"What  surprises  me,"  says  Captain  Sutter,  after  Mar- 
shall's discovery,  "is,  that  this  country  should  have  been 
visited  by  so  many  scientific  men,  and  that  not  one  of 
them  should  have  ever  stumbled  upon  these  treasures; 
that  scores  of  keen-eyed  trappers  should  have  crossed 
this  valley  in  every  direction,  and  tribes  of  Indians  have 
dwelt  in  it  for  centuries,  and  yet  that  this  gold  should 
never  have  been  discovered.  I,  myself,  have  passed  the 
very  spot  above  a  hundred  times  during  the  last  ten  years, 
but  was  just  as  blind  as  the  rest  of  them." 

The  precious  metals  are  generally  found  in  mountain- 
ous regions  where  there  have  been  important  foldings 
and  dislocations  of  the  earth's  crust,  and  where  the 
ancient  metamorphic  rocks  have  been  broken  through  by 
igneous  eruptions.  By  metamorphic  rocks,  we  mean  such 
as  slate,  schist,  quartzite,  and  marble.  The  slate  and 
schist  were  once  clays  in  the  bottom  of  some  old  ocean. 
The  quartzite  was  once  sandstone,  formed  by  the  consoli- 
dation of  sand  grains ;  and  the  marble  was  once  limestone 
formed  from  the  accumulation  of  shells  and  corals  grow- 
ing upon  an  ocean  reef.  Heat  and  pressure  far  within 
the  earth  changed  these  loose  and  incoherent  materials 
into  the  bright  sparkling  "metamorphic  rocks." 

The  whole  Pacific  border  of  both  North  and  South 
America  is  wonderfully  rich  in  a  great  variety  of  miner- 
als, and  probably  the  most  important  cause  for  this  is 


42  The    Geography    of    California 

the  oft-repeated  and  extremely  severe  disturbances  which 
this  region  has  undergone. 

During  the  folding  and  dislocation  of  the  crust  in  the 
California  region  innumerable  seams  and  fissures  were 
formed  in  the  rocks.  Molten  lavas  broke  through  these 
and  formed  great  dikes,  or  spread  over  the  surface.  The 
waters  which  everywhere  fill  the  seams  and  crevices  in 
the  rocks  were  heated  by  the  molten  materials  and  dis- 
solved out  some  of  the  mineral  constituents  of  these 
rocks.  Where  the  temperature  was  very  high  steam  was 
formed,  and  this  forced  the  waters  back  toward  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  where  they  still  issue  in  many 
parts  of  the  State  in  the  form  of  hot  or  boiling  springs. 
As  the  waters  approached  the  surface  they  deposited 
some  of  the  mineral  constituents  carried  in  solution,  and 
thus  gave  us  the  veins  of  ore  which  we  mine  in  so  many 
places.  In  the  quicksilver  regions  of  Lake  county  sul- 
phur and  cinnabar,  and  in  one  instance  gold,  are  now 
being  deposited  in  fissures  of  the  rocks  by  hot  springs. 
Minerals  are  also  being  deposited  by  the  hot  waters  of 
the  silver  mines  at  Virginia  City. 

Gold  is  found  in  greater  or  less  quantity  throughout 
all  the  mountains  of  the  State  except  the  Coast  Ranges. 
The  larger  part  of  the  latter  region  is  formed  of  rocks 
more  recent  than  the  period  of  gold  deposition.  It  is  in 
the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  however,  where  the 
first  important  discoveries  were  made,  that  we  find  by  far 
the  greater  quantity  of  gold.  Here  are  innumerable  gold- 
bearing  quartz  veins,  and  one  great  system,  in  particular, 
known  as  the  "Mother  Lode,"  which  extends  through  the 


Natural  Resources  43 

counties  of  Mariposa,  Tuolumne,  Calaveras,  Amador  and 
Eldorado. 

Gold  was  first  found  in  the  shallow  gravels  of  the 
present  streams,  having  collected  there  during  the  long 
ages  that  the  quartz  veins  and  enclosing  rocks  had  been 
decaying.  Searching  farther,  the  miners  discovered  gold 
in  the  deep  gravels  of  streams  which  long  ago  flowed 
down  the  slopes  of  the  mountains.  Great  changes  in  the 
geography  of  our  State  have  taken  place  since  then.  The 
Coast  Ranges  were  largely  beneath  the  sea  at  the  time 
these  ancient  rivers  existed,  and  over  its  bottom  were 
accumulating  the  ooze  made  up  of  the  remains  of  low 
forms  of  sea  life  which  in  the  course  of  time  was  to  be 
hardened,  folded  and  lifted  above  the  sea  and  furnish 
our  great  oil  deposits.  The  streams  of  this  ancient  time 
flowing  down  the  mountain  slopes  in  the  Sierra  region 
gradually  wore  them  away  and  the  rock  debris  accumu- 
lated in  broad,  deep  channels  at  the  bottom  of  which 
were  the  grains  and  nuggets  of  gold  derived  from  the 
quartz  veins. 

Following  the  time  of  which  we  are  speaking  many 
changes  took  place;  the  whole  Pacific  Coast  region  was 
lifted,  the  Sierra  block  was  tilted  toward  the  west,  and 
numerous  volcanic  outbreaks  took  place.  The  streams 
went  to  work  upon  the  steeper  slopes  and  inaugurated 
the  deep  canons  of  the  present  time.  They  cut  down 
through  the  old  gravel  channels,  and  so  exposed  their 
rich  gold  contents. 

Hydraulic  mining,  as  the  getting  of  the  gold  from  the 
deep  gravels  is  called,  was  very  profitable,  and  was  car- 
ried on  until  it  was  found  that  the  washing  down  of  the 


44  The    Geography    of    California 

gravel  banks  was  filling  up  the  streams,  when  it  was 
largely  stopped.  It  is  not  the  miner,  however,  who  is 
most  to  blame  for  the  filling  up  of  our  streams  and  bays ; 
it  is  rather  the  general  destruction  and  erosion  of  the 
surface  of  the  ground  all  over  the  State,  caused  by  the 
cutting  off  of  the  vegetation,  overstocking  the  grazing 
lands,  and  careless  farming  in  general. 

Silver  is  also  one  of  the  important  minerals  found  in 
California,  but  it  is  largely  confined  to  the  mountains  of 
the  Great  Basin,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State.  Here 
are  great  beds  of  limestone,  and  the  presence  of  silver 
seems  in  some  way  related  to  this  rock. 

In  Shasta  county  and  other  parts  of  the  State  there 
are  extensive  copper  and  iron  deposits. 

The  most  important  metal  found  in  the  Coast  Ranges 
is  quicksilver.  Its  presence  seems  to  be  related  to  volcanic 
action  and  the  resultant  hot  springs  which  are  most 
abundant  north  of  San  Francisco  in  the  Clear  Lake 
region.  The  oldest  quicksilver  mine  is  the  New  Almaden, 
near  San  Jose. 

The  oil  deposits  of  California  are  confined  to  the 
coastal  region,  where  are  the  extensive  beds  already 
referred  to  as  having  been  formed  of  the  remains  of  sea 
organisms.  These  organisms  are  in  part  microscopic 
forms  of  life,  and  in  part  fish  remains.  Under  the  influ- 
ence of  heat  and  pressure  within  the  earth  the  organic 
matter  was  distilled  off  in  the  form  of  gas  and  oil  and 
collected  in  porous  sandstones.  It  is  only  recently  that 
the  extreme  importance  of  oil  or  petroleum  in  California 
has  been  recognized,  and  now  this  mineral  product  over- 
shadows all  others. 


Natural  Resources  45 

Of  coal,  California  has  little,  there  being  a  few  small 
beds  of  soft  bituminous  or  lignite  coal  scattered  here  and 
there.  During  the  great  coal-bearing  periods  this  region 
seems  not  to  have  been  adapted  to  the  production  and 
preservation  of  land  vegetation. 

Many  mineral  springs,  some  hot  and  some  cold,  are 
scattered  over  California.  They  are  particularly  numer- 
ous and  varied  in  character  in  the  Coast  Ranges  between 
San  Francisco  and  Clear  Lake,  and  are  undoubtedly 
related  as  we  have  before  said,  to  the  late  volcanic  erup- 
tions in  this  region.  Mineral  springs  have  their  source 
deep  in  the  earth  and  are  hence  independent  of  the  local 
rainfall.  Such  springs  might  be  numerous  in  the  desert 
regions  because  of  this  fact,  while  ordinary  surface 
springs  are,  as  we  would  expect,  very  scarce. 

Among  the  most  interesting  of  the  mineral  deposits 
found  in  California  are  the  salts  occurring  in  the  desert. 
Their  presence  and  distribution  are  the  direct  result  of 
definite  geographic  conditions.  The  Great  Basin  region 
is  divided  by  mountains  into  innumerable  valleys,  each 
one  of  which  is  a  basin  in  itself.  There  is  now  so  little 
rainfall  in  this  region  that  the  most  of  these  basins  or 
sinks  show  no  surface  water,  but  during  the  Glacial 
Period  the  rainfall  was  so  much  greater  that  many  of 
them  contained  lakes.  Few  of  these  lakes,  however, 
overflowed  their  basins,  and  as  a  consequence  the  streams 
which  were  continually  bringing  to  them  small  quantities 
of  various  minerals  in  solution  finally  made  their  waters 
quite  brackish.  Gypsum,  common  salt,  glaubers  salt, 
soda,  borax,  nitre,  etc.,  were  the  most  important  of  these 


46  The    Geography    of   California 

minerals,  but  their  relative  amounts  varied  in  the  different 
lakes. 

As  the  climate  became  drier  and  the  waters  of  the  lakes 
shrank  through  evaporation  the  salts  began  to  be  depos- 
ited in  the  mud  upon  their  bottoms.  Now  only  a  few  of 
these  lakes,  such  as  Owens  and  Mono,  remain,  and  their 
waters  are  so  richly  impregnated  with  soda  and  salt  that 
these  substances  can  be  obtained  in  commercial  quantities. 

In  some  of  the  old  lake  beds  the  water  still  gathers 
during  the  wet  season,  but  disappears  with  the  approach 
of  hot  weather.  Others  are  dry  all  of  the  time,  and  the 
salts,  which  were  left  mixed  with  the  mud  and  clay  in 
their  beds,  through  the  process  which  we  call  efflores- 
cence, slowly  come  to  the  surface  and  form  a  crust.  This 
is  often  of  sufficient  thickness  to  be  scraped  up  and 
refined.  Thus  we  get  soda,  borax  and  salt.  The  beds 
of  salt  existing  in  the  Salton  Sink  before  the  formation 
of  the  recent  lake  from  the  overflow  of  the  Colorado  was 
undoubtedly  derived  from  the  ocean  which  once  extended 
from  the  Gulf  of  California  north  to  this  region. 

In  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  Mohave  Desert  there 
are  extensive  beds  of  gypsum  and  rock  salt  which  were 
probably  derived  from  salt  water  long  ago  when  the 
region  was  occupied  by  an  arm  of  the  sea. 

Large  quantities  of  salt  are  manufactured  on  the  tidal 
flats  about  the  southern  arm  of  San  Francisco  Bay.  Salt 
water  is  allowed  to  flow  into  artificially  prepared  ponds 
at  intervals  until,  under  the  influence  of  evaporation,  the 
water  becomes  saturated  and  the  salt  begins  to  crystallize 
out. 


Primitive  Inhabitants  47 

CHAPTER  VI. 
PRIMITIVE    INHABITANTS. 

The  first  explorers  found  all  parts  of  the  State  inhab- 
ited by  Indians.  They  moved  from  place  to  place  with 
the  changing  seasons  and  in  search  of  food.  They  lived 
in  very  simple  habitations  usually  made  of  sticks  bent 
over  in  circular  form,  fastened  at  the  middle  and  covered 
with  mud  or  skins.  They  subsisted  chiefly  on  acorns, 
roots  and  game.  Along  the  coast,  fish  and  mollusks 
were  an  important  article  of  diet.  They  have  been  called 
in  general  terms  "diggers,"  probably  because  of  their 
dependence  on  roots.  Their  dress  consisted  of  skins  and 
woven  bark  fibre.  They  used  stone  implements,  and  made 
beautiful  baskets.  California  offered  in  general  a  pleas- 
ant climate  and  abundant  food  supplies.  The  Indians 
were  then  without  the  necessity  for  great  exertion,  and 
were  therefore  indolent  and  lower  in  the  scale  of  develop- 
ment than  the  primitive  inhabitants  in  most  other  parts 
of  our  country. 

The  California  Indians  did  not  take  kindly  to  the  civil- 
ization offered  them  by  the  Spanish  missionaries,  and 
being  unable  to  stand  confinement  in  close  buildings,  and 
association  with  the  whites,  they  began  to  die  off  rapidly. 
The  passing  of  the  Indians  was  greatly  hastened  by  the 
influx  of  gold  seekers  and  settlers,  who,  although  the 
Indians  were  generally  inoffensive,  unless  first  attacked 
or  injured,  embraced  every  opportunity  or  provocation 
to  get  them  out  of  the  way.  Indeed,  sometimes  they  were 
shot   down   with   scarcely    any    provocation     whatever. 


48  The    Geography    of   California 

Now  the  Indians  have  practically  disappeared  from  the 
more  thickly  settled  portions  of  the  State. 

With  the  Indians  nearly  extinct  we  are  just  awakening 
to  the  fact  that  their  languages,  songs,  and  myths  possess 
exceeding  interest,  and  if  all  could  have  been  preserved 
might  have  thrown  great  light  upon  the  history  of  the 
primitive  peoples  of  Western  America.  The  origin  of 
these  people  and  the  length  of  time  they  have  been  here 
are  important  and  interesting  problems  to  be  solved. 

Many  stories  were  current  during  the  early  period  of 
mining  concerning  the  rinding  of  skeletons  and  imple- 
ments in  the  gold-bearing  gravels  which  were  overlaid 
by  lava  flows  in  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  moun- 
tains. These  stories  were  later  discredited,  but  a  renewed 
study  of  the  Indians  of  California,  the  shell  mounds 
about  San  Francisco  Bay,  and  the  limestone  caverns  of 
the  Sierras,  have  recently  shown  that  the  origin  of  the 
Indians  here  is  indeed  remote,  dating  back  perhaps  thou- 
sands of  years. 

Although  the  individuals  of  different  tribes  look  much 
alike,  yet  there  is  a  remarkable  diversity  in  the  languages 
which  they  speak.  There  are  certain  groups  living  side 
by  side  whose  languages  have  almost  no  root  words  in 
common.  Although  the  Indians  are  much  more  readily 
affected  by  geographic  conditions  than  are  people  of  a 
higher  civilization,  yet  the  differences  between  adjoining 
tribes  are  often  so  great  that  it  must  have  taken  a  very 
long  time  to  bring  them  about. 

Definite  evidence  of  a  very  interesting  character  show- 
ing the  long  period  of  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the 
present  Indians  came  is  found  in  the  shell  mounds  about 


Primitive  Inhabitants  49 

San  Francisco  Bay.  The  excavations  at  Shell  Mound 
Park,  and  also  at  Ellis  Landing,  near  Richmond,  show 
that  the  bases  of  these  mounds  are  below  the  level  of 
low  tide,  that  at  Ellis  Landing  being  submerged  nearly 
fifteen  feet.  That  this  change  of  level  is  not  recent  is 
shown  by  the  extensive  tidal  marshes  in  many  of  the 
arms  of  San  Francisco  Bay.  These  marshes  take  a  long 
time  to  form  through  the  accumulation  of  silt,  and  are 
built  up  practically  to  accord  with  the  present  level  of 
the  water. 

The  skeletons  found  in  some  of  the  caverns  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  are  believed  to  belong  to  a  race  antedating 
the  present  Indians,  for  the  latter  never  bury  their  dead 
in  caves,  and  have  no  traditions  of  ever  having  done  so. 
Judging  from  all  that  we  can  gather,  the  earliest  of  our 
primitive  inhabitants  found  the  geography  of  the  Cali- 
fornia region  considerably  different  from  that  of  the 
present. 


50  The    Geography    of   California 


CHAPTER  VII. 

SUCCESSIVE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   DIFFER- 
ENT  OCCUPATIONS. 

It  is  not  the  object  of  the  following  paragraphs  to  trace 
the  industrial  development  of  California,  for  that  in  itself 
would  not  be  geography,  but  rather  to  show  how  this  is 
related  to  and  grew  out  of  geographic  conditions.  It 
must  be  borne  clearly  in  mind  that  human  activities,  like 
those  of  all  living  things,  are  dependent  upon  the  environ- 
ment. Those  operations  which  we  carry  out  successfully 
are  successful  not  merely  because  of  our  endeavors,  but 
rather  because  they  are  in  harmony  with  the  physical, 
chemical  and  biological  laws  surrounding  them. 

It  was  nearly  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  after  the 
discovery  of  Upper  California  before  there  was  any 
attempt  made  by  the  Spaniards  to  take  possession  of  the 
land  and  establish  settlements.  Then,  actuated  by  two 
motives,  ( 1 )  that  of  keeping  the  Russians  from  encroach- 
ing on  the  north;  and  (2)  the  conversion  of  the  Indians, 
successive  expeditions  were  sent  out  from  Mexico  until 
a  chain  of  missions  was  established,  twenty-one  in  num- 
ber, and  scattered  along,  either  on  or  near,  the  coast 
from  San  Diego  to  Sonoma. 

The  Mission  fathers  came  from  a  land  where  irriga- 
tion was  all-important,  and  seeing  in  the  new  land  some- 
what similar  climatic  conditions,  placed  the  missions 
where  the  soil  was  fertile  and  water  could  be  easily 
obtained  for  the  gardens  which  were  to  follow.  It  was 
very  essential  that  the  establishments  be  self-supporting 


Successive  Development  of  Different  Occupations  51 

as  soon  as  possible,  for  communication  with  Mexico,  the 
source  of  supplies,  was  very  uncertain  and  irregular. 
With  the  use  of  water  the  soil  was  found  to  produce 
abundantly,  and  a  great  variety  of  fruit  and  other  prod- 
uce was  grown  in  the  gardens,  while  their  cattle,  horses 
and  sheep  increased  wonderfully  on  the  broad,  grassy 
ranges. 

Settlers  began  to  enter  the  country  and  were  given 
large  grants  of  land.  Nearly  all  the  coastal  region, 
beyond  which  they  seemed  afraid  to  penetrate,  was  found 
well  adapted  to  grazing,  and  the  hills  soon  became  cov- 
ered with  countless  thousands  of  cattle. 

Only  such  quantities  of  grain,  fruit  and  vegetables 
were  grown  as  could  be  consumed,  for  there  was  no 
market  outside  the  sparse  population,  but  the  products  of 
the  cattle,  such  as  hides  and  tallow,  could  be  shipped  with 
a  profit,  and  so  stock  raising  continued  to  be  the  chief 
industry.  Spain  for  a  long  time  tried  to  monopolize 
the  trade  of  the  Pacific,  but  the  American  ships  which 
finally  began  to  enter  the  Pacific  and  work  their  way  up 
the  west  coast,  brought  so  many  necessary  articles  in 
trade  for  their  hides  and  tallow  that  Spain  no  longer 
tried  to  enforce  her  claim. 

Affairs  remained  about  the  same  for  many  years,  and 
up  nearly  to  the  time  of  the  American  conquest.  A 
number  of  Americans  had  entered  California  and  obtained 
land,  chief  of  whom  was  Captain  Sutter,  who  settled  on 
the  Sacramento  at  the  mouth  of  the  American  river.  He 
had  been  raising  grain  and  other  produce  for  ten  years 
at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  gold,  and  was  in  a  position 
to  aid  the  emigrants  very  greatly. 


52  The    Geography    of   California 

During  the  height  of  the  gold  excitement  nearly  every 
other  occupation  was  abandoned,  but  after  the  richest 
placers  had  become  exhausted  many  turned  toward  agri- 
culture, for  all  products  of  the  soil  commanded  fabulous 
prices.  From  this  time  dates  the  commencement  of 
California's  great  agricultural  and  horticultural  develop- 
ment, although  for  rriany  years  progress  in  these  lines 
was  slow. 

Stock  raising  increased  and  long  remained  the  most 
important  industry  next  to  mining.  It  was  commonly 
believed  that  the  most  of  the  valley  lands  back  from  the 
coast  were  too  dry  to  grow  anything,  and  irrigation  on  a 
large  scale  had  not  yet  been  thought  of.  -The  greatest 
increase  of  agricultural  products  was  grain,  until  the 
Great  Valley  became  one  vast  granary.  Cattle  and  sheep 
continued  to  increase  in  numbers,  getting  their  support 
largely  from  the  public  ranges.  Sheep,  in  particular, 
spread  throughout  all  the  State,  penetrating  even  to  the 
most  remote  mountain  valleys  during  the  summers,  until 
the  country  was  practically  devastated.  Serious  injury 
to  the  vegetation  and  to  the  meadows,  resulting  in  the 
destruction  of  the  soils  and  humus  of  the  mountain  slopes 
through  erosion,  began  to  be  apparent.  In  order  to  make 
more  feed  it  was  a  common  habit  of  the  herders  to  set 
fires  which  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  untold  quan- 
tities of  timber.  The  unrestrained  torrents  swept  the 
soil  into  the  streams,  valleys  and  canons  were  choked, 
and  forested  areas  became  in  some  cases  almost  a  desert. 
The  results  of  this  overstocking  are  still  to  be  seen  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  State.     Where  the  rainfall  was 


Successive  Development  of  Different  Occupations  53 

slight  and  the  slopes  steep,  as  in  Southern  California, 
these  conditions  were  most  noticeable. 

The  Government  finally  began  to  awake  to  the  manner 
in  which  not  only  the  stockman,  but  the  lumberman  as 
well,  was  devastating  the  public  domain,  and  finally  came 
the  inauguration  of  the  present  forest  policy.  Extensive 
forest  reserves,  or  National  Forests,  as  they  are  now 
known,  were  created  and  from  these  the  stock  are  either 
excluded  entirely  or  allowed  to  graze  in  only  limited 
numbers.  The  stock  industry  began  to  decline,  and  now 
the  great  herds  and  the  limitless  ranges  have  nearly  dis- 
appeared. 

Cattle  could  be  driven  to  market  and  their  products 
shipped  by  boat.  Grain  could  also  be  shipped  by  boat, 
but  it  could  not  profitably  be  taken  to  the  boats  until 
railroads  were  built  through  the  main  valleys  of  the 
State,  connecting  both  with  tide  water  and  with  the  East. 
We  can  find  hardly  any  large  agricultural  district  in  the 
United  States  where  waterways  aided  as  little  in  the 
development  of  the  country  and  in  the  transportation  of 
crops  as  in  California.  If  we  make  an  exception  of  the 
lower  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  rivers,  and  the 
various  arms  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  water  transportation 
has  aided  very  little  in  the  development  of  California. 
The  silting  up  of  the  streams  since  the  early  days,  both 
because  of  hydraulic  mining  and  the  injury  done  the 
surface  through  careless  agriculture  and  stock  raising, 
has  still  more  limited  the  use  of  water  as  a  transporting 
agent. 

The  Great  Valley  of  California  is  most  admirably 
adapted  to  water  transportation,  and  the  time  will  come 


54  The    Geography    of    California 

when  the  streams  will  be  deepened  so  that  small  boats 
can  traverse  the  whole  length  of  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  arms  of  this  valley.  There  are  no  engi- 
neering difficulties  whatever  in  the  way  of  the  construc- 
tion of  a  canal  from  Buena  Vista  Lake  at  the  extreme 
southern  end  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  northwesterly 
through  Tulare  Lake  to  tidewater. 

The  three  stages  in  the  development  of  the  products 
of  the  soil  in  California  are,  (1)  the  raising  of  cattle 
on  the  great  ranches;  (2)  the  great  grain  ranches,  and 
(3)  the  intensive  culture,  with  diversified  farming,  of 
small  ranches  made  possible  through  irrigation. 


Importance  of  Irrigation  in  California  55 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

IMPORTANCE    OF    IRRIGATION    IN 
CALIFORNIA. 

It  was  not  until  the  value  of  irrigation  upon  a  large 
scale  was  recognized  that  California  could  start  upon  its 
modern  period  of  development.  Since  this  development 
could  not  have  preceded  the  era  of  local  and  transconti- 
nental railroads  whereby  a  market  in  the  East,  and  even 
in  Europe,  was  assured  we  might  with  truth  say  that 
transportation  is  fully  as  important  a  factor  as  irrigation. 
Irrigation  turned  the  fertile  but  dry  soil  into  productive 
fields,  while  the  railroads  enabled  the  crops  to  be  mar- 
keted. 

Owing  to  the  absence  of  summer  showers,  even  those 
parts  of  the  State  where  the  rainfall  is  heavy  require 
irrigation  for  the  growing  of  garden  crops.  In  the  drier 
parts  of  the  State,  however,  many  temperate  fruits  can 
be  grown  without  irrigation  by  thoroughly  cultivating 
the  soil.  The  successful  growing  of  oranges  and  other 
citrus  fruits  requires  irrigation  everywhere. 

Irrigation  was  first  carried  on  upon  a  large  scale  in 
Southern  California,  where  the  extensive  sagebrush  val- 
leys were  for. a  long  time  thought  to  be  valueless.  Where 
it  once  required  several  square  miles  to  support  a  few 
half-starved  cattle  we  now  find  a  network  of  irrigating 
ditches  supplying  water  to  luxuriant  orchards. 

Irrigation  is  rapidly  being  extended  in  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley  and  the  big  grain  ranches  are  being  cut  up  into 
small  ones  where  an  intensive  culture  will  prevail.    Vast 


56  The    Geography    of    California 

irrigating  systems  are  now  being  planned  for  the  Sacra- 
mento Valley.  This  is  the  one  great  valley  in  the  State 
where  there  appears  to  be  abundant  water  for  all  needs. 
In  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  and  in  Southern  California 
the  cultivation  of  the  countless  acres  of  rich  soil  available 
will  be  limited  by  the  water  supply. 

Huge  reservoirs  are  being  constructed  at  the  heads 
of  many  streams  and  at  available  points  on  their 
lower  courses  to  hold  the  water  of  the  winter  storms. 
These  reservoirs  will  lessen  the  danger  from  floods  and 
save  the  water  for  use  in  summer.  The  importance  of 
lofty  mountains  for  the  growth  of  a  great  population  in 
California  is  not  always  appreciated;  if  it-were  not  for 
their  cold  summits,  retaining  the  moisture  in  form  of 
snow  far  into  the  summer,  there  would  not  only  be  less 
water  available,  but  the  problem  of  a  summer  supply 
would  be  much  greater. 


Development  of  Industrial  and  Commercial  Life 


CHAPTER   IX. 

DEVELOPMENT    OF    INDUSTRIAL    AND 
COMMERCIAL   LIFE. 

The  manufacturing  industries  of  California  have  been 
slow  in  their  development,  partly  because  of  the  high  cost 
of  labor  and  partly  because  of  the  scarcity  of  coal,  nearly 
all  of  which  had  to  be  imported.  Then,  besides,  pig  iron 
has  never  been  produced  here,  although  several  iron  ore 
deposits  are  known  in  the  State,  and  all  that  was  used 
had  to  be  brought  from  the  East.  Recently  the  fuel 
question  has  been  completely  solved  through  the  discovery 
of  extensive  deposits  of  petroleum.  This  is  mostly  a 
heavy  oil  and  particularly  well  suited  for  use  in  boilers. 

Although  manufacturing  must  go  on  increasing  in 
importance  and,  notwithstanding  the  existence  of  many 
valuable  minerals,  California  is  destined  to  be  pre-emi- 
nently an  agricultural  State.  The  great  population  which 
it  will  undoubtedly  support  in  the  future  will  largely 
depend  upon  the  soil. 

The  centralization  of  the  commerce  of  the  Pacific 
Coast  upon  the  shores  of  San  Francisco  Bay  has  been 
assured  since  Portola  first  looked  down  upon  its  great 
expanse  from  the  hills  upon  the  south. 

Shut  in,  as  California  is,  by  mountain  ranges  and 
deserts,  an  extensive  overland  traffic  never  could  have 
been  developed  with  the  means  at  the  disposal  of  our 
forefathers.  With  the  coming  of  the  railroad  which 
spans  canons,  tunnels  through  mountains,  and  reaches 
across   the   deserts,   the   barriers   which   Nature   placed 


58  The    Geography    of    California 

about  California  have  been  largely  done  away  with. 
When  the  proposed  great  tunnel  through  the  Sierras, 
on  the  line  of  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad,  shall  have  been 
completed  San  Francisco  Bay  will  be  as  accessible  to  the 
interior  of  the  continent  as  though  the  great  river  which 
was  once  supposed  to  have  its  source  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains and  flow  westward  into  this  bay,  actually  existed. 

Southern  California  has  been  so  isolated  by  Nature 
from  the  rest  of  the  State  by  the  Mohave  Desert  and  its 
bordering  mountain  ranges  that  we  would  expect  what 
actually  has  happened,  namely ;  that  there  would  grow  up 
here  a  large  city  which  might  rival  San  Francisco.  Los 
Angeles  has  become  a  great  center  of  trade  and  manufac- 
turing, and  has  extended  her  boundaries  to  San  Pedro 
harbor  which  is  being  enlarged  as  a  seaport. 

The  particular  advantages  of  San  Francisco  lie  in  its 
great  land-locked  bay  which  offers  unrivaled  facilities 
for  foreign  commerce,  and  for  its  accessibility  to  all 
Northern  and  Central  California.  The  growth  of  Los 
Angeles  is  due  essentially  to  its  position  as  a  supply 
point  for  a  large  interior  section,  as  well  as  to  its  location 
in  the  heart  of  a  great  area  of  rich  land  susceptible  of  a 
great  variety  of  productions,  and  possessing  a  climate 
which  attracts  many  thousands  of  visitors  yearly. 

San  Francisco  and  Los  Angeles  can  never  be  rivals  in 
commerce  and  manufacturing.  Nature  did  not  intend 
it  to  be  so,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  historic  State 
of  California  will  forever  remain  undivided,  notwith- 
standing the  physical  barriers  separating  the  north  from 
the  south. 


PART  II 


THE    DIFFERENT    NATURAL    REGIONS   OR 
PROVINCES  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


60  The    Geography    of   California 

CHAPTER  X. 

NATURAL    DIVISIONS    OR  PROVINCES. 

California  is  such  a  large  State  and  has  such  a  diversity 
of  geographic  features  that,  without  the  existence  of 
certain  natural  divisions  enabling  us  to  take  up  a  part  at 
a  time,  it  would  be  difficult  to  give  an  intelligent  descrip- 
tion. Fortunately,  such  divisions  do  exist,  and  while  they 
are  not  everywhere  sharply  defined  yet  they  will  aid  us 
very  materially.  Making  use  of  the  drainage  and  the 
varying  character  of  the  relief  we  find  that  the  surface 
of  the  State  naturally  falls  into  seven  distinct  regions  or 
provinces.  These  are  defined  as  follows:  There  is  (1) 
the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  forming  one  great  block 
of  the  earth's  crust;  (2)  the  Great  Valley  lying  in  the 
heart  of  the  State  and  inclosed  by  the  Sierra  Nevadas 
and  the  Coast  Ranges;  (3)  the  Coast  Ranges,  a  complex 
system  of  mountains  lying  between  the  Great  Valley  and 
the  ocean;  (4)  Southern  California,  a  designation  usually 
given  to  all  that  part  of  the  State  lying  south  of 
Tehachapi  Pass,  but  which  in  the  following  pages  will 
be  applied  to  that  part  of  this  region  lying  upon  the 
coastal  slope.  The  remaining  portion,  including  the 
Mohave  and  Colorado  Deserts,  belong  in  the  Great 
Basin  and  will  be  discussed  under  that  head;  (5)  the 
Klamath  Mountains,  occupying  the  northwest  corner  of 
the  State,  and  extending  over  into  Oregon.  As  we  look 
at  the  relief  map  they  do  not  appear  separate  from 
the  northern  Coast  Ranges,  but  are  in  reality  much  higher 
and  more  rugged.     The  perpetual  snow  upon  some  of 


Natural  Divisions  or  Provinces  61 

their  lofty  peaks,  their  rugged  slopes  and  deep  canons, 
as  well  as  their  mineral  resources,  cause  them  to  resemble 
the  Sierra  Nevadas;  (6)  the  Volcanic  Plateau,  distin- 
guishing the  northeast  corner  of  the  State.  From  its 
broad  elevated  valleys  rise  mountain  ranges  and  innum- 
erable cinder  cones  and  volcanic  peaks,  most  noted  of 
which  are  Mts.  Shasta  and  Lassen;  (7)  the  Great  Basin 
occupying  one-third  of  the  area  of  California.  This 
region  is  distinguished  by  the  peculiar  fact,  implied  in  the 
name,  that  it  has  no  external  drainage.  None  of  the 
rain  which  falls  in  the  basin  ever  flows  away  to  the  ocean, 
but  is  largely  evaporated  in  its  desert  air.  We  must  not 
fall  into  the  error  of  thinking  that  the  Great  Basin  is 
one  single  depression  with  a  rim  of  mountains  about  it. 
It  is,  instead,  broken  up  by  hundreds  of  mountain  ranges 
into  basins  of  varying  size  and  position,  and  varying  in 
elevation  from  over  6000  feet  above  the  sea  to  278  feet 
below.  The  Great  Basin  occupies  the  eastern  portion  of 
the  State,  and  extends  its  whole  length. 

After  taking  up  those  phases  of  our  subject  in  which 
we  can  best  describe  the  State  as  a  whole,  we  shall  make 
a  detailed  examination  of  these  different  provinces  in  the 
order  in  which  they  have  been  given. 


62  The    Geography    of   California 

CHAPTER   XL 
THE    SIERRA    NEVADA    MOUNTAINS. 

The  Sierra  Nevada  Range  is  the  most  striking,  as  well 
as  the  most  important  physical  feature  of  California. 
These  mountains  contain  rich  stores  of  mineral  wealth; 
their  vast  watershed  supplies  an  almost  unlimited  volume 
of  water;  their  forests  are  the  grandest  in  the  world, 
and  properly  conserved  are  inexhaustible;  their  scenery 
is  unsurpassed,  and  their  value  as  a  summer  recreation 
ground  places  them  ahead  of  all  other  areas  of  the  kind 
in  the  United  States. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  range  forms  a  "great  block  of 
the  earth's  crust  which  has  been  lifted  along  its  eastern 
side  and  tilted  westward.  Although  the  relief  map  shows 
the  range  swinging  around  westerly  at  its  southern  end 
and  joining  the  Coast  Ranges  and  continuous  on  the 
north  of  Mt.  Shasta,  yet  geographers  have  limited  it 
somewhat.  It  is  customary  to  consider  it  as  terminating 
on  the  south  at  the  Tehachapi  Pass,  although  there  is 
no  good  reason  why  the  short  range  known  as  the 
Tehachapi  Range  and  extending  westward  to  the  Coast 
Ranges  should  not  be  considered  a  part  of  the  Sierras. 
On  the  north,  however,  the  granitic  rocks  of  the  Sierras 
terminate  near  the  northern  line  of  Plumas  county,  and 
from  this  point  northward  into  Oregon  the  mountains 
are  formed  of  lava.  Consequently,  beginning  with  Las- 
sen Peak  and  including  Shasta  and  many  other  volcanic 
peaks,  we  speak  of  the  mountains  as  the  Cascade  Range. 
The    Cascade    Range    is    formed   of    volcanic    materials 


The  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  .  63 

entirely,  and  its  rocks  are  much  younger  than  those  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada. 

The  Sierra  Nevada  Range,  as  we  have  defined  it, 
has  a  general  direction  a  little  west  of  north,  with  a  length 
of  about  400  miles  and  an  average  width  of  80  miles. 
The  summit  of  the  range  lies  close  to  the  side  along 
which  the  fracturing  and  uplift  took  place,  so  that  the 
eastern  slope  is  short  and  exceedingly  bold  and  pictur- 
esque, while  the  western  slope,  as  a  whole,  is  long  and 
gentle,  although  also  fully  as  picturesque  in  detail.  The 
western  slope,  then,  both  because  it  includes  seven- 
eighths  of  the  drainage,  and  because  there  is  greater  pre- 
cipitation on  that  side,  includes  nearly  all  the  large 
streams.  This  fact  becomes  of  great  economic  impor- 
tance when  we  consider  the  vast  extent  of  fertile  soil  in 
the  Great  Valley  which  only  needs  the  application  of 
water  to  produce  abundantly.  If  the  slopes  were 
reversed  not  only  would  the  -precipitation  be  smaller,  but 
the  most  of  the  water  would  be  lost  in  the  deserts  of  the 
Great  Basin. 

At  the  southern  end  the  Sierra  Nevada  Range  does 
not  much  exceed  7000  feet  in  elevation,  Tehachapi  Pass 
being  4025  feet.  Here  the  southeastern  face  is  not  very 
high  nor  very  abrupt,  but  as  we  follow  it  northward  in 
a  gently  sweeping  curve  it  becomes  more  lofty  and  impos- 
ing. This  face  or  escarpment  west  of  Owens  Valley  is  not 
equaled  for  length,  height  and  ruggedness  by  anything 
else  in  North  America.  The  eastern  front  of  the  Teton 
Range,  upon  the  borders  of  the  Yellowstone  Park,  alone 
compares  with  it  in  scenic  grandeur. 


64  The    Geography    of    California 

Owens  Valley  has  itself  an  elevation  of  4000  feet  above 
the  sea,  but  the  escarpment  rises  10,000  feet  above  it, 
culminating  in  jagged  peaks,  the  highest  of  which  is  Mt. 
Whitney,  14,501  feet.  As  viewed  from  the  summit  of 
the  Inyo  Range,  lying  on  the  opposite  side  of  Owens 
Valley,  the  individual  peaks  do  not  stand  out  distinctly, 
and  we  get  a  full  realization  of  the  mighty  Sierra  wall, 
which,  now  of  course  much  eroded,  was  originally  formed 
by  a  two-mile  vertical  displacement  of  the  earth's  crust. 

North  of  Owens  Valley  extensive  flows  of  lava  have 
been  built  up  against  the  range  so  that  the  escarpment 
does  not  appear  so  high,  but  as  we  approach  Mono  Lake, 
which  lies  in  a  basin  caused  by  the  sinking  of  the  earth, 
we  encounter  another  great  escarpment  more  than  a  mile 
in  height,  Mt.  Dana  rising  about  7000  feet  above  the 
waters  of  the  lake. 

As  we  continue  to  trace  the  Sierras  northward  and 
approach  Lake  Tahoe,  we  find  that  the  one  great  line  of 
fracture  and  displacement  of  the  earth  gives  place  to 
three.  The  main  eastern  wall  is  well  shown  along  the 
western  side  of  Carson  Valley.  The  western  one  forms 
the  rugged  mountains  rising  above  Tahoe.  The  lake 
itself  occupies  a  sunken  block,  and  is  directly  due  to  a 
great  flow  of  lava  which  formed  a  dam  across  the  depres- 
sion. This  is  the  largest  mountain  lake  in  the  State,  its 
surface  having  a  height  above  sea  level  of  6225  feet,  and 
a  depth  of  1635  feet.  The  scenery,  pure  water,  and 
pleasant  summer  climate  make  the  region  prized  as  a 
place  for  summer  recreation. 

Tracing  the  Tahoe  Valley  northward  we  pass  a  number 
of  glacial  lakes,  among  which  are  Donner,  Independence, 


The  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  65 

and  Weber,  and  finally  reach  Sierra  Valley.  The  lakes 
drain  easterly  through  the  Truckee  river  into  the  Great 
Basin,  but  Sierra  Valley,  lying  in  the  same  dropped 
earth-block,  empties  westward  through  the  Feather  river 
into  the  Sacramento.  In  following  the  Sierras  northward 
to  this  point  the  crest  of  the  range,  or  line  of  highest 
peaks,  has  formed  the  divide  between  the  Pacific  and  the 
Great  Basin,  but  Sierra  Valley  is  some  miles  east  of  this 
crest,  and  the  drainage,  instead  of  going  eastward,  as  we 
should  expect,  is  west  through  the  crest  by  means  of 
Feather  river,  as  before  stated.  It  is  difficult  to  explain 
this  anomaly  unless  we  assume  that  the  crest  has  been 
slowly  rising  relatively  to  Sierra  Valley,  and  the  streams 
once  established  maintained  their  courses  by  continually 
deepening  their  channels.  Going  north  and  east  from 
Sierra  Valley  we  gradually  rise  until  we  reach  the  top  of 
the  eastern  escarpment  of  the  Sierras  and  look  down  3000 
feet  upon  Honey  Lake  Valley,  lying  in  the  Great  Basin. 
How  different,  then,  are  the  opposite  sides  of  the 
Sierra  Nevadas.  Looking  at  the  range  from  the  east 
we  face  a  bold  fault  escarpment.  Approaching  it  from 
the  west  we  can  at  only  few  points  get  a  glimpse  of  the 
summit,  and  have  to  travel  many  miles  through  gradually 
rising  valleys  and  mountains  before  we  get  a  good  view 
of  the  summit. 

Mountain  Passes. 

For  more  than  200  miles  along  the  middle  Sierras  there 
are  no  passes  much  lower  than  11,000  feet,  while  scores 
of  peaks  approach  14,000  feet  in  height.  This  continuity 
of  the  lofty  crest  is  quite  remarkable,  and  made  access 


66  The    Geography    of    California 

to  the  fertile  valleys  of  California  very  difficult  for  the 
early  emigrants.  Because  of  this  fact  Fremont  and  party 
nearly  perished;  many  of  the  Donner  party  died;  and 
the  Death  Valley  party  were  blocked  and  had  to  turn 
southward.  Wagon  roads  were  finally  built  over  the 
Donner  and  Carson  Passes,  but  on  some  of  the  other 
routes  there  were  places  where  the  wagons  had  to  be 
taken  apart  and  let  down  over  precipices  with  ropes. 

The  first  railroad  was  built  over  the  Donner  Pass,  but 
owing  to  the  elevation  of  7000  feet  there  has  always  been 
much  trouble  with  snow.  Beckwith  Pass,  leading  from 
the  Great  Basin  to  Sierra  Valley,  is  one  of  the  easiest 
passes  in  the  range,  having  an  elevation  of  only  5000 
feet,  but  in  this  case  we  have  an  interesting  illustration 
that  it  is  not  always  the  crest  of  the  range  that  is  most 
difficult  to  pass,  for  Feather  river,  the  outlet  of  Sierra 
Valley,  could  not  be  followed  down  to  the  Sacramento 
Valley  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  flowed  much  of  the 
distance  through  precipitous  canons. 

Until  recently  the  highest  pass  occupied  by  a  wagon 
road  was  Sonora  Pass,  9624  feet  in  elevation,  but  now 
the  State  has  opened  a  road  through  the  Yosemite  Park, 
Tioga  Pass  and  Leevining  Creek  to  Mono  Lake.  Tioga 
Pass  has  an  elevation  of  9941  feet,  and  is  open  for  travel 
only  three  to  four  months  each  year.  Mono  Pass,  near 
the  head  of  the  Tuolumne  river,  was  much  used  by  the 
Indians  in  crossing  from  the  east  to  the  Yosemite  Valley. 
Mammoth  Pass  leads  from  the  head  of  Owens  river  to 
the  North  Fork  of  the  San  Joaquin  river,  and  is  occupied 
by  an  important  trail.     Owing  to  the  easy  approach  to 


The  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  67 

this  pass  from  the  east  it  may  some  time  be  used  by  a 
railroad. 

Perhaps  the  easiest  of  all  is  Walker's  Pass,  across  the 
southern  Sierras  to  the  valley  of  the  South  Fork  of  the 
Kern  river,  which  has  an  elevation  of  5280  feet.  Here, 
however,  the  same  difficulty  is  encountered  as  in  the  case 
of  Beckwith  Pass,  for  the  Kern  cannot  be  followed  down 
to  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  owing  to  the  ruggedness  of 
the  canon. 

The  Tehachapi  Pass  is  approached  very  easily  from 
the  Mohave  Desert,  on  the  south,  but  the  descent  to  the 
San  Joaquin  Valley,  on  the  north,  is  so  rapid  that  the 
construction  of  a  railroad  across  it  was  quite  a  difficult 
undertaking.  The  old  stage  road  from  Los  Angeles  to 
Bakersfield  made  use  of  the  Tejon  Pass,  which  is  situated 
between  the  Tehachapi  Range  and  the  San  Emegdio 
Mountains.  This  is  the  easiest  route  connecting  Southern 
with  Central  California,  since  in  reaching  the  pass  from 
the  south  the  Mohave  Desert  is  skirted  instead  of  crossed 
as  in  the  case  of  the  road  leading  to  Tehachapi.  The 
Tejon  Pass  is  interesting  because  it  is  situated  directly  on 
the  Great  Earthquake  rift,  and  is  in  reality  due  to  the 
presence  of  the  rift. 

Geographical  Story  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 

The  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  are  noted  for  many 
things :  for  their  mineral  wealth,  their  forests,  their  lofty 
peaks,  and  their  wonderful  canons,  lakes  and  waterfalls. 
To  understand  these  we  must  learn  something  of  the 
history  of  the  region,  and  this,  when  we  know  how  to 
decipher  it,  can  be  read  in  the  character  of  its  surface. 


68  The    Geography    of    California 

We  must  recognize,  to  start  with,  that  mountain  ranges 
are  not  permanent  features  of  the  earth.  They  begin  as 
the  result  of  disturbances  within  the  earth,  finally  attain 
their  greatest  height,  and  are  at  last  worn  down  through 
the  crumbling  of  the  rocks,  and  the  removal  to  lower 
lands  of  this  waste  material  through  the  agency  of  run- 
ning water  and  glaciers.  We  have  here  in  California 
different  mountain  groups  representing  various  stages 
in  this  process  of  upbuilding  and  wearing  down.  We 
shall  also  see  that  the  particular  stage  of  development  in 
which  we  find  a  mountain  range  determines  its  economic 
importance  to  the  district  about. 

As  one  ascends  the  long  gentle  western  slope  of  the 
Sierra  Nevadas  he  is  constantly  reminded  of  a  region  of 
low  relief  which  has  been  lifted  and  tilted  and  is  now 
undergoing  erosion.  Long  ago,  then,  the  Sierras  had  been 
worn  down  so  that  the  streams  flowed  through  broad 
valleys,  while  the  highlands  along  the  divides  rarely, 
except  in  the  loftiest  part  of  the  range,  approached  the 
dignity  of  mountains.  This  old  surface  is  shown  better 
in  the  basin  of  the  upper  Kern  river  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  mountains.  The  Kern  Canon  is  about  2000 
feet  deep  and  bordered  by  distinct  shoulders  with  plateau- 
like tops  which  slope  back  gently  to  the  lofty  mountains 
on  the  crests  of  the  main  range  of  the  Great  Western 
Divide,  a  spur  from  this  main  range.  This  plateau  once 
formed  the  bottom  of  the  valley  through  which  the 
ancient  Kern  flowed  before  the  mountains  were  uplifted. 
Since  this  last  movement  the  canon  has  been  cut,  and 
glaciers  have  modified  the  mountains  along  the  divides, 
until  through  the  action  of  sapping  by  the  cirques  they 


The  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  69 

have  been  made  very  rugged  and  precipitous.  The  view 
from  some  lofty  point  near  the  Yosemite  Valley  shows 
a  similar  condition  of  the  surface.  The  valley  appears 
as  a  deep  precipitous  cut  in  a  rolling  plateau  which  slopes 
from  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  to  the  summit  of  the  range. 
The  present  Sierras,  then,  show  three  dominant  topo- 
graphic features,  namely,  the  deep  canons,  the  plateau- 
like shoulders  bordering  them,  and  the  lofty  glacier  sculp- 
tured divides. 

That  portion  of  the  Sierras  which  is  at  present  the 
highest,  namely,  the  Kings-Kern-Kaweah  divide,  was 
also  the  highest  in  ancient  times.  Toward  the  north  the 
range  was  low,  and  during  the  accumulation  of  the 
gravels  of  the  ancient  streams  was  nearly  buried  by  these 
and  the  later  volcanic  materials. 

Finally  there  came  a  time  when  the  movements  of  the 
earth's  crust  opened  anew  the  fissures  along  the  eastern 
base  of  these  ancient  mountains,  and  lava  and  streams  of 
volcanic  mud,  similar  to  that  which  destroyed  Martin- 
ique, flowed  down  many  of  the  valleys  and  buried  the 
river  beds.  The  volcanic  material  was  particularly 
abundant  in  the  northern  portion.  Severe  earthquakes 
undoubtedly  occurred,  and  the  mountains  began  to  rise 
and  tilt  toward  the  west.  In  this  way  arose  the  steeper 
slope  in  which  the  streams  finally  eroded  canons  2000 
to  3000  feet  deep. 

The  Scenic  Features  of  the  Mountains. 

The  origin  of  the  Yosemite  Valley  has  been  the  cause 
of  a  great  deal  of  speculation  ever  since  it  was  known. 
There  is,  however,  nothing  which  distinguishes  it  from 


70  The    Geography    of   California 

the  Hetch  Hetchy  Valley,  the  Kings,  and  the  Kern  river 
canons,  save  that  it  is  deeper  and  more  precipitous.  All 
of  these  canons  had  the  same  origin.  The  agent  which 
produced  them  was  chiefly  running  water,  although  their 
last  shaping  was  due  to  glacial  action.  The  reason  that 
the  Yosemite  Valley  is  more  precipitous  and  picturesque 
than  the  others  is  because  the  granite  here  is  cut  by  seams 
or  joints  which  are  predominantly  vertical,  or  nearly  so. 
The  rocks  decay  along  these  seams,  and  as  their  material 
is  removed  by  water,  cliffs  finally  result. 

Waterfalls  have  originated  chiefly  through  the  differ- 
ence in  rapidity  of  erosion  of  a  small  stream  as  compared 
with  a  large  one.  The  Merced  river  cut  down  into  the 
granite  so  much  faster  than  Bridal  Veif  or  Yosemite 
creeks  that  waterfalls  of  great  height  and  beauty  were 
finally  formed.  The  Merced  river  itself  enters  the  valley 
by  two  falls,  the  lower  one  of  which  is  due  to  a  hard  rim 
of  granite,  and  the  upper  to  the  fact  that  at  the  melting 
of  the  glaciers  the  stream  was  pushed  out  of  its  old 
channel  and  forced  to  take  a  new  one,  over  a  cliff. 

The  glacial  period  was  of  great  importance  to  Cali- 
fornia. The  increased  precipitation  led  to  the  formation 
of  the  numerous  lakes  in  the  Great  Basin  which  are  now 
generally  dry,  and  from  whose  beds  we  obtain  salts  of 
various  kinds.  In  the  mountains  the  Glacial  Period  was 
most  noticeable.  The  glaciers  scraped  off  all  the  loose 
and  disintegrated  rock  materials,  leaving  the  surface  bare 
and  smooth,  and  carried  this  material  to  the  end  of  its 
ice  tongues  in  the  canons,  where  water,  in  its  turn,  con- 
tinued to  transport  the  gravel  and  boulders  on  toward 
the  valley.     After  the  melting  of  the  ice  it  was  a  long 


The  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  71 

time  before  vegetation  again  spread  over  the  surface,  and 
there  are  large  areas  where  the  trees  are  only  just  getting 
a  foothold  in  the  crevices  of  the  rocks. 

The  removal  of  the  rock  debris  from  the  surface  was 
very  bad  in  one  way,  since  it  allowed  the  rains  and  the 
water  from  the  melting  snows  to  run  off  rapidly,  thus 
increasing  floods  and  making  the  streams  lower  in  the 
summer.  This  effect  was  partly  counteracted,  however, 
by  the  morainal  materials  which  were  left  in  great  piles 
and  ridges  here  and  there.  This  material  acts  as  a 
sponge,  absorbing  the  melting  snows  and  allowing  the 
water  to  go  off  slowly  in  form  of  springs. 

It  was  for  the  creation  of  the  lakes  that  we  have  the 
most  to  be  thankful  to  the  glaciers  for.  The  hundreds 
and  almost  thousands  of  the  glacial  lakes  not  only  add 
immeasurably  to  the  scenic  features  of  the  mountains, 
but  they  are  of  very  great  economic  importance.  They 
tend  to  equalize  the  flow  of  the  streams,  and  hold  back 
large  quantities  of  water  which  then  runs  away  gradually 
through  the  summer.  A  study  of  the  floods  of  our  coun- 
try will  show  that  those  streams  which  have  many  lakes, 
and  an  abundance  of  lakes  is  always  found  in  recently 
glaciated  areas,  seldom  have  floods  which  do  any  great 
damage.  Compare  the  upper  Mississippi  and  the  Ohio 
in  this  regard. 

The  glacial  lakes  were  formed  in  two  different  ways. 
In  one  case  the  debris  left  by  a  glacier  made  a  dam  across 
a  canon  and  a  body  of  water  formed  above.  Such  lakes 
may  be  quite  deep,  and  are  generally  found  near  the 
terminations  of  the  glaciers.  Rock  basin  lakes  are  as  a 
rule  higher  upon  the  mountains,  and  sometimes  occur  in 


72  The    Geography    of    California 

step-like  series,  even  to  the  very  head  of  the  stream,  the 
last  one  occupying  a  cirque  under  the  precipitous  walls 
of  the  crest.  Previous  to  the  coming  of  the  glaciers  the 
rocks  had  everywhere  decayed  to  a  considerable  depth, 
this  being  much  more  pronounced  in  some  places  than  in 
others.  As  the  glaciers  passed  down  the  slopes  and  into 
the  canons  they  scraped  off  the  soft  and  more  or  less 
loose  rock  material,  finally  tearing  away  portions  of  the 
solid  rock  where  it  was  projecting  in  its  path,  and  lastly 
grinding  and  polishing  the  surface.  Where  the  rocks 
were  decayed  deeply  basins  were  formed,  the  more  resist- 
ant rock  below  causing  the  glaciers  to  rise  and  ride  over 
it  until  another  softer  spot  was  found  where  it  again 
scooped  out  a  basin.  We  may  say,  then,  that  while  the 
glaciers  modified  the  canons,  they  did  not  originate  them. 
The  real  agent  was  running  water. 

We  do  not  know,  with  any  certainty,  the  cause  of  the 
Glacial  Period  in  California,  or  whether  it  corresponded 
exactly  with  the  period  of  glaciation  in  the  northeastern 
States.  We  know,  however,  that  about  the  time  of  gla- 
ciation the  whole  Pacific  Coast  region  stood  much  higher 
above  the  sea  than  it  does  now.  An  elevation  of  3000 
feet  would  again  cause  extensive  glaciation  in  the  Sierra 
Nevadas,  as  would  also  a  comparatively  slight  increase 
in  the  amount  of  precipitation.  Small  glaciers  still  exist 
on  the  protected  slopes  of  the  highest  peaks. 

The  southern  limits  of  the  ancient  glaciers  in  the 
Sierras  was  just  above  the  lakes  in  Kern  river  canon,  at 
an  elevation  of  6000  feet.  As  we  go  northward  the  indi- 
cations of  glaciation  reach  lower,  and  in  the  Hetch  Hetchy 
region  was  something  less  than  4000  feet. 


The  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  73 

The  Economic  Importance  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas. 

The  Sierra  Nevada  Range  is  now  in  the  stage  of  geo- 
graphic development  in  which  it  is  of  the  greatest  eco- 
nomic value,  as  well  as  of  scenic  attractiveness.  If  it 
were  older  there  would  be  less  of  the  plateau-like  upland 
remaining,  and  it  is  this  which  supports  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  forest.  If  the  range  were  more  nearly  worn 
down  the  precipitation  would  be  less,  the  climate  warmer, 
the  run-off  of  the  water  more  rapid,  and  less  remaining 
for  use  in  the  summer.  The  streams,  also,  are  at  a  stage 
where  they  will  produce  a  large  amount  of  power  for 
commercial  purposes.  As  we  shall  see  later  the  San 
Gabriel  Range  of  Southern  California  has  reached  a 
stage  of  development  in  which  there  are  practically  no 
agricultural  lands  available.  In  the  Sierra  Nevadas  there 
are  agricultural  lands  upon  the  plateau-like  shoulders 
between  the  canons,  and  at  many  points  in  the  canons 
themselves  where  erosion  has  resulted  in  producing  val- 
leys of  considerable  size.  Several  of  the  larger  valleys 
in  the  northern  Sierras,  such  as  Sierra  and  Indian  Val- 
leys, are  not  the  result  of  erosion,  but  of  faulted  and 
displaced  earth  blocks. 

Mining  was  the  industry  which  first  brought  this 
region  into  prominence,  and  the  population  was  for  a 
time  very  large.  As  placer  mining  decreased  people 
drifted  away,  and  the  region  is  dotted  with  almost  aban- 
doned towns.  The  most  important  of  the  old  mining 
towns  remain,  drawing  their  support  largely  from  quartz 
mining.  Those  along  the  Mother  Lode  include  Mariposa 
at  the  south,  then  Coulterville,   Sonora,  Angels   Camp, 


74  The    Geography    of   California 

San  Andreas,  Jackson,  Plymouth  and  Placerville,  and 
farther  north  Grass  Valley,  Nevada  City,  Oroville  and 
Quincy  were  once  important  places. 

The  gold  of  the  ancient  river  beds  is  far  from  being 
exhausted,  but  hydraulic  mining  has  largely  ceased  owing 
to  the  damage  done  by  the  tailings  to  the  valley  lands. 
One  can  travel  for  miles  in  Nevada  and  Placer  counties 
without  being  out  of  sight  of  abandoned  placer  and 
hydraulic  diggings.  Thousands  of  acres  of  land  once 
valuable  for  agricultural  purposes  is  now  given  over  to 
rock  heaps.  Much  dredging  for  gold  is  now  being  car- 
ried on  in  the  bottom  lands  of  the  Feather  river,  below 
Oroville,  and  it  is  proposed  to  dredge  large  areas  along 
the  Merced  river  below  Merced  Falls.  Although  much 
gold  will  undoubtedly  be  obtained,  yet  it  is  certain  that 
in  the  long  run  the  loss  of  these  fertile  bottom  lands  will 
be  greater  than  the  profit  in  gold  taken  out. 

Quartz  mining  is  of  a  more  permanent  character  than 
either  placer  or  hydraulic  mining,  and  does  not  injure 
the  surface  to  the  same  extent.  Some  of  the  mines  on  the 
Mother  Lode  are  down  over  3000  feet  and  are  still 
obtaining  a  fair  grade  of  ore. 

Dairying  is  a  profitable  industry  in  many  of  the  upland 
valleys,  particularly  of  the  northern  Sierras.  Sheep  are 
now  kept  out  of  many  parts  of  the  mountains,  and  the 
number  of  cattle  which  are  allowed  to  graze  in  the 
National  Forests  is  limited.  It  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance that  we  take  the  best  care  of  the  watersheds  of  our 
streams,  that  our  summer  water  supply  may  not  be 
affected. 


The  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  75 

The  forestry  question  in  the  Sierra  Nevadas  is  of  the 
utmost  importance.  We  have  here  one  of  the  finest  tim- 
ber supplies  remaining  in  the  world,  and  it  behooves  us 
to  take  good  care  of  it.  So  much  of  the  timber  has 
passed  into  the  hands  of  corporations  who  take  no  care 
in  their  lumbering  operations  that  the  solution  of  the 
problem  of  conservation  is  difficult. 

The  timber  in  the  National  Forests  is  cut  under  the 
supervision  of  the  rangers;  only  mature  trees  are  felled, 
and  the  refuse,  which  ordinarily  adds  so  much  to  the 
danger  of  fire,  is  burned.  When  the  white  people  first 
came  much  of  the  lower  timber  belt  had  an  open  park- 
like character,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Indians  fre- 
quently burned  off  the  surface  to  keep  it  clear  so  they 
could  hunt.  This  has  now  largely  grown  up  to  trees  and 
brush ;  in  fact  the  young  timber  will  in  a  few  years  be  an 
important  source  of  lumber.  Those  who  advocate  the 
burning  of  the  country  as  the  Indians  did  forget  that 
this  burning  killed  all  the  young  trees,  and  if  it  had  been 
kept  up  would  in  time  have  resulted  in  the  almost  total 
destruction  of  the  forest.  In  past  years  there  has  been 
the  most  criminal  waste  of  this  magnificent  forest.  In 
order  to  stop  it  entirely,  and  also  lessen  the  danger  of 
fire,  the  Government  should  supervise  the  cutting  even 
on  private  lands.  The  devastation  which  the  most  of  the 
lumber  companies  leave  in  their  operations  makes  it  neces- 
sary that  we  do  something  at  once. 

The  water  power  available  in  the  numberless  streams 
of  the  Sierras  is  of  great  magnitude,  and  the  development 
of  transmission  lines  makes  it  possible  to  transport  this 


76  The    Geography    of    California 

power  to  any  point  in  the  State,  instead  of  having  to  use 
it  on  the  spot,  as  in  past  years. 

The  same  water,  after  having  supplied  power,  can  be 
utilized  for  irrigation  in  the  Great  Valley.  We  might 
with  truth  say  that  the  water  furnished  by  the  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains  is  one  of  the  most  important  assets 
of  California.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres  of  rich 
land  in  the  Great  Valley  would  remain  comparatively 
useless  if  it  were  not  for  this  water.  There  is  little  doubt 
that  every  particle  available  will  eventually  be  used,  par- 
ticularly in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley.  We  also  see  that 
the  Sierra  water,  taken  from  Owens  river  and  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  Sierras  is  destined  to  enable  Southern  Cali- 
fornia to  support  a  much  larger  population  than  it  other- 
wise could.  The  200-mile  aqueduct  built  at  enormous 
expense  shows  the  importance  of  the  water  supply  for 
the  drier  parts  of  California. 

In  our  description  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  it 
will  not  do  to  pass  over  the  use  of  this  region  as  a  sum- 
mer recreation  ground.  The  value  of  the  mountains  for 
this  purpose  cannot  be  overestimated,  and  it  is  being 
appreciated  more  every  year.  There  is  no  region  in  the 
United  States  better  adapted  to  outings  for  health  and 
recreation.  The  absence  of  rain,  except  for  occasional 
thunder  storms,  the  bracing  air  of  the  forests,  and  the 
magnificent  scenery,  make  these  mountains  more  valuable 
for  our  health  and  happiness  than  for  many  of  the  so- 
called  economic  uses.  The  heat  of  the  interior  valleys  in 
summer,  as  well  as  the  cold  fogs  upon  the  coast,  turn 
people  in  the  direction  of  the  mountains. 


The  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  77 

The  public  parks,  such  as  the  Yosemite  National  Park, 
will  be  forever  kept  in  their  natural  wild  state,  and  here 
the  birds  and  animals  are  to  receive  equal  protection  with 
the  forests.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  a  much  larger  area 
than  the  parks  will  be  preserved  as  Nature  made  it,  for 
looking  at  the  question  even  from  a  commercial  stand- 
point, there  will  eventually  be  more  money  left  in  Cali- 
fornia by  tourists  and  visitors,  than  if  we  cut  away  the 
forests,  sell  their  products  and  leave  the  mountain  slopes 
desolate  and  exposed  to  erosion  by  the  winter  storms. 


78  The    Geography    of   California 

CHAPTER  XII. 
THE  GREAT  VALLEY  PROVINCE. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Great  Valley  de- 
serves our  attention  next  because  it  lies  at  the  foot  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  in  the  very  heart  of  the  State. 
Its  vast  stretches,  now  but  sparsely  settled,  will  some 
time  hold  the  bulk  of  the  agricultural  population  of 
California. 

The  Great  Valley  is  practically  a  plain  400  miles  long 
and  50  miles  wide.  It  gradually  rises  through  foothills 
to  mountains  which  inclose  it  on  all  sides.  The  northern 
arm  is  known  as  the  Sacramento  Valley,  the  southern  as 
the  San  Joaquin,  and  each  is  drained  by  a  river  of  the 
same  name.  These  two  streams  coming  from  opposite 
directions  unite  in  the  western  center  of  the  valley  and 
flow  westward  through  the  Strait  of  Carquinez  to  San 
Francisco  Bay. 

The  Great  Valley  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  present 
existing  physical  features  of  California.  It  was  formed 
far  back  in  the  history  of  the  earth  through  a  down- 
folding  of  the  earth's  crust.  It  has  been  either  a  valley 
somewhat  as  it  appears  today,  a  brackish  or  fresh-water 
lake,  or  an  arm  of  the  sea  throughout  the  long  time  dur- 
ing which  the  Sierra  Nevadas  were  being  uplifted  and 
worn  down,  while  volcanoes  and  lava  flows  were  forming 
the  volcanic  plateau  of  the  northeastern  portion  of  the 
State,  and  while  the  Coast  Ranges  were  being  folded 
and  dislocated  in  earthquake  movements,  and  the  ocean 


The  Great  Valley  Province  79 

was  invading  their  valleys  or  retreating  from  their  pres- 
ent shores. 

For  long  ages  rock  waste  brought  by  the  streams  from 
the  inclosing  mountains  has  been  accumulating  in  the 
bottom  of  the  Great  Valley.  Wells  put  down  3000  feet 
fail  to  reach  the  bottom  of  these  deposits,  and  the  process 
is  still  going  on.  To  permit  of  this  accumulation  we  must 
understand  that  the  valley  bottom  has  been  slowly  sinking 
relative  to  the  mountains. 

Drainage. — The  combined  Sacramento-San  Joaquin 
river  was  once  a  stream  of  considerable  length  flowing 
down  through  San  Pablo  and  San  Francisco  Bays  and  out 
through  the  Golden  Gate.  Owing  to  the  recent  sinking  of 
the  coast  this  river  was  so  completely  drowned  that  but 
little  now  remains.  Tidal  influence  is  now  felt  as  far 
inland  as  Sacramento  and  Stockton.  Another  effect  of  the 
subsidence  was  the  flooding  of  the  lower  part  of  the  Great 
Valley,  so  now  at  the  junction  of  its  two  rivers  there  is 
an  extensive  delta  and  marsh  region  which  is  more  or 
less  overflowed  during  the  spring  freshets.  This  region 
is  slowly  being  made  into  dry  land  as  a  result  of  the  depo- 
sition of  the  silt  brought  down  by  the  muddy  waters. 
The  surface  is  more  or  less  overgrown  with  tules.  Large 
areas  have  been  reclaimed  by  levees  and  are  found  to  be 
exceedingly  productive. 

The  channel  of  the  lower  Sacramento  river  has  for 
many  miles  been  built  up,  making  its  immediate  banks 
higher  than  the  country  lying  back,  so  that  in  flood  time 
the  banks  are  dry,  while  the  country  on  either  side  is 
occupied  by  vast  bodies  of  water.  While  the  immediate 
effect  of  the  silt  brought  down  from  the  hydraulic  mines 


80  The    Geography    of   California 

was  to  shoal  the  beds  of  the  Sacramento,  Yuba,  Feather 
and  other  rivers,  yet  the  ultimate  effect  might  be  made 
very  beneficial  by  turning  the  silt-laden  waters  into  and 
reclaiming  the  marshy  lowlands. 

When  the  gold  miners  first  came  small  boats  could 
ascend  the  Feather  river  to  Marysville,  and  the  Sacra- 
mento as  far  as  Red  Bluff,  but  these  streams  have  been  so 
filled  that  now  they  are  scarcely  navigable  above  the  city 
of  Sacramento.  The  San  Joaquin  carries  less  water  and 
has  been  used  less  than  the  Sacramento,  although  with  a 
little  dredging  it  would  be  navigable  as  far  up  as  the 
mouth  of  the  Merced. 

The  Merced,  Tuolumne,  Stanislaus,  Mokelumne  and 
Cosumnes  rivers  have  cut  well  defined  channels  below  the 
level  of  the  valley  on  their  way  to  their  junction  with  the 
San  Joaquin.  Farther  south  the  Kings,  Kaweah  and 
Kern  rivers,  carrying  at  most  seasons  a  volume  of  water 
which  is  relatively  less  in  relation  to  the  quantity  of  sand 
and  silt  which  they  are  bearing  along,  have  built  up 
extensive  deltas  above  the  level  of  the  valley.  A  study  of 
the  map  will  show  that  these  streams,  with  their  many 
channels,  some  of  which  are  used  one  season,  some 
another,  have  a  true  delta  character.  Like  the  streams 
of  the  arid  region  at  flood  time  their  channels  are  often 
higher  than  the  adjacent  land,  so  that  their  waters  are 
forever  changing  their  course. 

The  streams  which  flow  into  the  San  Joaquin  Valley 
from  the  Coast  Ranges  are  small,  and  dry  up  in  the 
summer,  while  those  from  the  Sierras  are  large  and 
numerous.  The  consequence  is  that  the  main  drainage 
lines  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  are  forced  over  toward 


The  Great  Valley  Province  81 

the  west  side  by  the  delta  accumulations  on  the  side  next 
to  the  Sierras. 

The  Kings  river  has  built  so  large  a  delta  or  debris 
cone  as  to  block  the  once  continuous  drainage  of  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley,  and  behind  the  dam  thus  formed  there 
once  existed  a  large  permanent  body  of  water  known  as 
Tulare  Lake.  In  late  years  so  much  water  has  been  used 
in  irrigation  that  the  lake  has  at  times  completely  dried 
up,  although  now  (1910)  there  is  a  considerable  body  of 
water  there. 

The  Kern  river,  in  building  its  debris  cone,  formed 
another  low  dam  across  the  valley,  giving  rise  to  Buena 
Vista  and  Kern  Lakes  at  the  extreme  southern  end  of 
San  Joaquin  Valley.  At  times  of  high  water  Buena  Vista 
Lake  discharges  northward  into  the  Tulare  basin,  and 
also  southeastward  into  Kern  Lake.  An  old  beach  with 
clam  shells  on  it  in  the  edge  of  the  hills,  200  feet  above 
Buena  Vista  Lake,  tells  us  that  once  a  large  lake  occupied 
the  whole  southern  end  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley. 

Climate. — As  a  result  of  the  Coast  Range  barrier  the 
western  sides  of  both  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento 
valleys  are  much  drier  than  the  eastern,  and  consequently 
much  more  in  need  of  irrigation.  In  the  former  no  per- 
manent streams  flow  eastward  from  the  Coast  Ranges,  the 
main  drainage  lines,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Sierras  being 
westward.  Much  of  this  land  will  bear  grain  crops  on 
average  years,  while  other  large  areas  are  very  dry,  with 
only  a  scanty  vegetation,  and  suitable  for  grazing  during 
the  spring  months. 

Cottonwood  trees  are  scattered  over  the  deltas  of  the 
Kern  and  Kaweah  rivers,  and  near  the  mountains  the 


82  The    Geography    of   California 

latter  delta  contains  some  oaks,  but  generally  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley  is  destitute  of  trees  save  for  narrow 
fringes  along  the  streams.  At  Bakersfield  the  annual 
rainfall  is  only  about  six  inches,  but  this  increases  north- 
ward until  at  Red  Bluff  it  is  twenty-five  inches.  Owing  to 
the  heavier  rainfall  a  large  portion  of  the  Sacramento 
Valley  is  dotted  with  oaks.  Some  of  these  reach  a  great 
size,  and  in  places  give  the  country  the  appearance  of  a 
natural  park. 

The  climate  of  the  Great  Valley  is  marked  by  much 
greater  extremes  than  is  the  coastal  region.  The  sum- 
mers are  very  warm,  but  as  the  air  is  dry  the  high  tem- 
perature is  more  easily  borne  than  is  much  of  the  summer 
weather  in  the  Eastern  States.  The  winters  are  scarcely 
any  cooler  than  those  in  Southern  California,  so  that 
citrus  fruits  are  grown  in  perfection.  Experiments  have 
shown  that  an  orange  belt  extends  practically  the  whole 
length  of  the  eastern  side  of  the  valley  from  Bakersfield 
to  Oroville.  The  climatic  conditions  are  particularly 
favorable  for  oranges  where  the  valley  merges  into  the 
lower  foothills.  It  is  a  peculiar  and  interesting  fact  that 
oranges  ripen  a  month  to  six  weeks  earlier  at  Oroville 
than  in  Southern  California.  This  is  probably  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  fruit  belt  of  Southern  California  is  not  shut 
off  from  the  ocean  by  lofty  mountains  as  is  that  of 
Central  California.  The  cool  winds  penetrating  far 
inland  in  the  former  make  the  growth  of  fruits  slower. 
We  find  another  illustration  of  this  fact  in  the 
Vaca  Valley  region  lying  on  the  western  side  of  the 
Sacramento  Valley  and  close  under  the  Coast  Ranges. 
Here  such  fruits  as  cherries,  apricots,  etc.,  are  produced 


The  Great  Valley  Province  83 

earlier  in  the  spring  than  in  any  other  portion  of  the 
State. 

Another  peculiar  feature  of  the  Great  Valley,  and  one 
which  is  not  always  pleasant,  is  the  existence  of  winter 
fogs  which,  from  their  prevalence  in  the  tule  covered 
delta  region,  are  known  as  "Tule  fogs."  Occasionally 
during  the  clear  cool  weather  of  midwinter  these  fogs 
spread  over  the  whole  valley. 

Industrial  Development. — It  was  at  one  time 
thought  that  the  vast  semi-arid  plains  of  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley  were  only  valuable  as  stock  ranges.  Then  grain 
was  sowed,  but  produced  little  in  dry  years.  The  country 
was  desolate  in  the  extreme.  There  were  few  comfortable 
homes  and  almost  no  gardens. 

With  the  introduction  of  irrigation  all  began  to  change. 
The  large  ranches  were  cut  up  into  small  ones  which  were 
much  better  taken  care  of  and  produced  a  better  living. 
What  irrigation  will  do  is  shown  in  the  thousands  of 
acres  of  vineyards,  orchards  and  alfalfa  fields  spread  over 
the  delta  of  the  Kings  river. 

The  greatest  development  of  the  orange  industry  up 
to  the  present  has  taken  place  about  Porterville.  Not 
only  is  the  climate  much  like  that  of  Southern  California, 
but  the  scenery  is  very  similar.  Unlike  the  most  of  the 
western  slope  of  the  Sierras  the  valley  lands  here  extend 
up  to  the  very  base  of  lofty  mountains  whose  snow- 
covered  crests  are  visible  from  the  orange  orchards. 

Irrigation  is  now  being  extended  to  the  Sacramento 
Valley  on  a  large  scale,  and  many  of  the  formerly  unim- 
proved grain  and  stock  ranches  are  being  cut  up  and 
supplied   with   water.     Important   reservoirs   are   being 


84  The    Geograpny   of    California 

built  in  the  mountains  to  conserve  the  flood  waters  for 
summer  use.  The  most  important  of  these  is  on  the 
upper  Pitt  river,  which  rises  in  the  remote  northeastern 
corner  of  the  State. 

Since  the  Great  Valley  is  mostly  underlaid  by  very 
recent  accumulations  we  would  not  expect  its  mineral 
resources  to  amount  to  much.  A  small  bed  of  coal 
occurs  at  lone.  At  Lincoln  are  deposits  of  clay  which 
are  being  utilized  for  tiles  and  pottery.  Natural  gas  has 
been  found  in  deep  wells  at  Stockton,  and  is  abundant  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  oil  deposits.  Artesian  water  is  found 
at  many  points  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley. 

The  one  important  mineral  substance  which  occurs 
upon  the  borders  of  the  southern  San  Joaquin  Valley  is 
petroleum.  The  fields  have  increased  in  extent  and  im- 
portance until  this  region  has  become  the  great  oil  center 
of  the  State.  The  important  fields  are  the  Kern  River, 
Coalinga,  McKittrick,  Sunset  and  Midway.  The  latter 
is  of  the  greatest  extent,  and  in  the  spring  of  1910 
occurred  the  wildest  excitement  ever  known  since  the 
first  discovery  of  gold.  In  the  Sunset  field  is  the  greatest 
oil  well  in  the  world,  which  for  several  months  spouted 
oil  into  the  air  at  the  rate  of  over  40,000  barrels  every 
twenty-four  hours.  The  oils  here  are  better  suited  for 
fuel  than  for  illuminating  purposes.  Large  quantities  of 
gasoline,  distillate  and  lubricants  are  produced  in  the 
refining  process. 

The  cultivation  of  the  soil  in  the  Sacramento  Valley 
was  first  undertaken  by  Captain  Sutter,  who  obtained  a 
grant  from  Mexico  and  built  a  fort  near  the  mouth  of 


The  Great  Valley  Province  85 

the  American  river.  Shortly  after  the  discovery  of  gold 
General  Bidwell  planted  orchards  near  the  present  town 
of  Chico. 

All  those  who  set  out  orchards  during  the  early  days 
of  the  gold  excitement,  mastered  the  climatic  conditions 
which  were  so  different  from  the  East,  and  successfully 
applied  irrigation,  received  almost  fabulous  prices  for 
what  they  could  raise. 

Geographic  conditions  were  all-important  in  determin- 
ing the  locations  of  the  first  towns.  Sacramento  early 
became  the  main  center  for  distribution  of  supplies  to 
the  miners  because  boats  of  large  size  could  readily 
ascend  the  Sacramento  river  to  this  point.  Before 
hydraulic  mining  caused  a  shoaling  of  Feather  river, 
boats  ascended  as  far  as  the  present  city  of  Marysville. 
This  fact  determined  the  location  of  the  place.  Red 
Bluff  owes  its  location  to  the  fact  that  boats  could  ascend 
the  Sacramento  to  that  point. 

Sacramento,  in  addition  to  being  a  supply  point  for 
the  mines,  was  also  the  terminus  of  the  overland  route, 
so  that  nearly  all  the  emigrants  arriving  by  wagon  team 
went  there  first.  The  place  also  became  the  terminus  of 
the  first  overland  railroad,  and  later  an  important  railroad 
center.  It  is  now  an  important  shipping  point  for  early 
fruit  and  vegetables  destined  for  the  East. 

Stockton  also  grew  up  as  a  town  because  of  its  relation 
to  water  transportation.  Supplies  were  sent  to  the  south- 
ern mines  from  this  point,  but  as  the  mines  became  less 
important  its  position  with  regard  to  a  vast  and  fertile 
agricultural  region  has  become  the  determining  factor  in 
its  destiny. 


86  The    Geography    of   California 

The  position  of  both  Bakersfield  and  Fresno  were 
determined  in  a  general  way  by  the  delta  lands  of  the 
Kern  and  Kings  rivers,  respectively.  In  a  region  which 
is  as  dry  as  a  large  part  of  California  the  presence  of  an 
abundance  of  water  is  one  of  the  first  considerations  in 
the  location  of  the  towns  and  cities. 

There  is  no  more  fertile  and  easily  cultivated  region 
in  the  world  than  the  vast  area  of  marsh  and  overflow 
lands  lying  at  the  junction  of  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacra- 
mento rivers.  The  character  of  the  soil,  together  with 
the  abundance  of  moisture,  particularly  adapts  this  region 
to  the  growing  of  vegetables.  The  lands  have  to  be 
protected  with  dikes  or  levees,  but  during,  severe  floods 
these  are  frequently  broken  down.  Studies  are  now  being 
carried  on  as  to  the  best  methods  for  taking  care  of  the 
flood  waters  of  this  region  and  filling  the  marshes. 
Investigations  are  also  being  made  as  to  whether  this 
region  is  rising  or  sinking. 

The  Great  Valley  of  California  is  most  exceptionally 
situated  for  the  support  of  a  great  population.  It  is 
rimmed  with  mountains  from  which  the  drainage  lines 
descend  and  converge  at  one  point.  From  this  point,  at 
the  strait  of  Carquinez,  there  is  communication  with  the 
whole  world  by  deep-water  vessels.  Large  sailing  vessels 
can  come  up  through  the  strait  and  receive  their  loads 
at  the  very  door  of  the  valley.  When  the  Sacramento 
has  been  deepened  to  Red  BlufT,  and  the  San  Joaquin 
dredged  and  a  canal  built  from  it  to  the  Tulare  and  Kern 
basins  then  this  great  region  will  be  prepared  to  begin  its 
boundless  development. 


The  Great  Valley  Province  87 

In  addition  to  this  possible  water  transportation  the 
Great  Valley  is  at  present  connected  with  the  rest  of  the 
country  by  four  important  railroads  which  make  use  of 
depressions  or  passes  in  the  rim  of  mountains.  On  the 
east  Donner  and  Beckwith  passes  are  used.  On  the 
south  Tehachapi,  and  on  the  north  the  Sacramento  river 
canon  gives  access  to  the  northern  part  of  the  State, 
from  whence  Oregon  is  reached  by  the  Siskiyou  Pass. 
There  are  other  passes,  as  we  have  seen,  which  will 
doubtless  be  used  as  the  population  increases. 


88  The    Geography    of   California 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE   COAST   RANGES. 

As  far  as  we  can  learn  Fremont  was  the  first  to  use 
the  name  Coast  Ranges  for  the  mountains  bordering  the 
coast  of  California.  At  that  time  too  little  was  known  of 
the  geography  of  this  region  for  the  name  to  have  any- 
very  exact  meaning.  Although  in  reality  mountains  are 
practically  continuous  along  the  coast  from  Oregon  to 
Southern  California,  yet,  as  far  as  our  State  is  concerned 
geographers  have  come  to  apply  the  term  Coast  Ranges 
much  as  Fremont  used  it,  meaning  that  portion  of  the 
mountains  bordering  the  Pacific  Coast  which  lie  between 
the  Great  Valley  of  California  and  the  ocean. 

The  Klamath  Mountains,  occupying  the  northwest 
corner  of  the  State,  are  more  lofty  and  Sierra-like  than 
the  Coast  Ranges,  contain  important  deposits  of  gold  and 
copper,  and  for  the  most  part  consist  of  older  rocks. 
These  criteria  are  made  the  basis  for  the  demarkation 
between  the  two,  which  forms  a  pretty  direct  northwest 
and  southeast  line,  according  closely  with  the  lower 
Klamath  river  and  the  South  Fork  of  Trinity  river,  from 
the  head  of  which  it  is  carried  across  the  crest  of  the 
range  south  of  that  group  of  peaks  known  as  the  Yallo 
Bally  Mountains. 

The  Coast  Ranges  are  limited  on  the  south  by  a  line 
drawn  westerly  from  the  extreme  southern  end  of  the 
San  Joaquin  Valley,  a  line  which  closely  accords  with 


The  Coast  Ranges  89 

the  northern  boundary  of  Santa  Barbara  county.  We 
find  this  marked  topographically  by  the  Cuyamas  Valley 
and  the  Santa  Maria  river,  and  further  by  the  fact  that 
to  the  south  the  mountains  extend  nearly  east  and  west, 
while  the  Coast  Ranges  have  a  northwest  and  southeast 
.direction. 

In  describing  the  Coast  Ranges  we  have  to  do,  as  the 
name  implies,  with  a  group  or  system  of  mountains  in 
which  there  are  a  number  of  distinct  ranges.  They  do 
not  constitute  a  simple  mountain  block  like  the  main 
part  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas.  The  folding  of  the  earth's 
crust  and  the  formation  of  fracture  and  earthquake  lines 
in  a  general  northwest  and  southeast  direction  have 
given  origin  to  the  series  of  parallel  mountains  and  val- 
leys. The  disturbances  of  the  earth's  crust  in  this  region 
have  been  many  and  severe,  affecting  now  one  part,  now 
another  part. 

A  bird's-eye  view  from  some  lofty  point  shows  the 
ranges  with  the  intervening  valleys  which  make  up  the 
system  extending  a  little  more  to  the  west  than  the  gen- 
eral trend  of  the  coast.  This  results  in  rocky  headlands 
where  the  mountains  come  out  to  the  sea,  while  behind 
the  headlands,  and  lying  at  the  mouths  of  the  valleys, 
are  bays  with  sandy  beaches  penetrating  the  land  more  or 
less  deeply.  Our  bird's-eye  view  also  shows  that  there 
are  comparatively  few  isolated  mountain  peaks,  but  many 
somewhat  uniform  valleys  and  ridges  which  in  a  broad 
way  seem  quite  monotonous,  but  when  viewed  in  detail 
appear  to  be  extremely  varied  and  attractive.  Many 
passes  and  connecting  valleys  break  up  the  region  into  a 


90  The    Geography    of   California 

great  complexity  of  features  so  that  it  is  impossible  to 
describe  its  geographic  development  as  a  whole. 

According  to  the  records  shown  in  the  geographic 
features,  as  well  as  in  the  rocks,  no  other  portion  of  the 
United  States  has  had  such  a  remarkably  complicated 
history.  Nowhere  else  do  we  find  stronger  evidences  of 
the  instability  of  the  earth's  crust.  One  part  has  been 
folded,  another  has  been  raised  or  dropped  along  crustal 
fracture  lines.  Then,  here  and  there  volcanic  action  has 
been  severe  and  long-continued.  The  region  of  the 
Berkeley  Hills  was  quite  recently  occupied  by  a  fresh- 
water lake,  while  another  large  lake  occupied  the  lowland 
district  about  the  southern  arm  of  San  Francisco  Bay. 

The  geographic  features  have  been  further  complicated 
by  the  movements  of  the  land  relative  to  the  sea.  At  one 
time,  perhaps,  there  were  many  such  times,  the  land 
stood  much  higher  than  now,  and  the  shore  lay  a  varying 
distance  to  the  westward  of  the  present  shore,  while  the 
streams  cut  channels,  in  some  places  canons,  across  what 
is  now  a  part  of  the  submerged  continental  plateau. 

At  another  time  the  Coast  Ranges  were  submerged 
until  nearly  buried  beneath  the  waters  of  the  Pacific. 
They  were  then  practically  a  group  of  islands  and  penin- 
sulas separated  from  the  Sierra  Nevadas  by  a  broad,  deep 
bay  which  occupied  the  Great  Valley.  Earthquakes  and 
volcanic  outbreaks,  and  changes  of  the  level  of  the  land 
seem  never  to  have  left  the  country  at  rest.  We  once 
thought  that  it  was  at  rest,  and  that  there  would  be  no 
more  changes,  but  the  great  earthquake  of  1906  taught 
us  better. 


The  Coast  Ranges  91 

It  was  formerly  believed  that  the  Coast  Ranges  were 
newer  than  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  and  that  the  continent 
grew  progressively  westward  from  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
This  is  a  mistake,  for  there  was  extensive  land  here  long 
before  there  was  any  Sierra  Nevada  Range.  The  granite 
exposed  in  the  Santa  Lucia,  Gavilan  and  Santa  Cruz 
Ranges,  on  the  Farallone  Islands  and  at  Point  Reyes, 
tells  us  there  was  land  here  long  ago,  and  it  was  on  this 
ancient  land  that  the  earliest  known  representatives  of 
the  Sequoias  lived,  as  has  already  been  mentioned. 

The  complexity  of  the  geography  of  the  Coast  Ranges 
is  increased  by  the  fact  that  the  underlying  rocks  vary 
greatly  in  their  resistancy  to  decay  and  erosion.  Valleys 
may  be  formed  where  the  rocks  are  soft,  and  where  they 
are  resistant  picturesque  peaks  may  be  developed  as  is 
illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  San  Luis  Buttes.  These  are 
the  most  striking  mountain  peaks,  due  to  purely  erosion 
effects,  which  we  have.  They  represent  ancient  igneous 
eruptions  which  once  broke  up  through  the  crust  and 
now  stand  out  because  they  are  hard  and  the  rocks 
around  them  are  soft.  They  extend  in  line  from  the 
town  of  San  Luis  Obispo  northwesterly  to  the  ocean, 
and  terminate  in  a  great  rock  known  as  Morro  Rock 
which  rises  bare  and  rugged  to  a  height  of  nearly  600 
feet. 

South  of  San  Francisco  there  are  three  prominent 
mountain  axes.  The  southern  one,  which  lies  along  the 
ocean  the  major  part  of  its  length,  is  known  as  the  Santa 
Lucia.  This  is  the  most  rugged  of  the  mountains 
included  in  the  Coast  Ranges.  The  lofty  points  and  deep 
rugged  canons  are  quite  Sierra-like  in  character.     The 


92  The    Geography    of    California 

main  crest  is  about  4000  feet  high,  while  Santa  Lucia, 
the  highest  peak,  reaches  nearly  6000  feet.  For  many 
miles  the  range  rises  with  extreme  ruggedness  from  the 
ocean  in  which  its  southern  base  rests.  The  continental 
shelf,  which  borders  almost  the  whole  of  California,  is 
absent  here,  so  that  the  range  really  has  its  base  in  the 
depths  of  the  Pacific.  On  the  south  it  merges  into  the 
Cuyama  Range  of  Santa  Barbara  county,  and  on  the 
north  it  terminates  at  Point  Pinos,  and  forms  the  beau- 
tiful Monterey  Bay. 

The  middle  axis  of  the  southern  Coast  Ranges  is  the 
Santa  Cruz-Gavilan  Range,  which  extends  from  Point 
San  Pedro,  a  few  miles  south  of  San  Francisco,  south- 
easterly until  it  finally  merges  in  the  Mt.  Diablo  Range. 
The  highest  peaks  of  the  Santa  Cruz  Mountains  rise  to 
3500  feet,  while  the  Gavilan  reaches  about  3000  feet. 
This  axis  is  worn  down  in  the  middle,  where  the  Pajaro 
river  crosses  it,  so  as  to  make  really  two  parts,  as  men- 
tioned above. 

The  northern  of  the  Coast  Range  axes,  and  the  one 
forming  the  watershed,  is  commonly  known  as  the  Mt. 
Diablo  Range.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  double 
peak  rising  to  a  height  of  3849  feet  a  short  distance 
south  of  the  strait  of  Carquinez.  Mt.  Diablo  is  the 
most  prominent  landmark  seen  from  across  the  Great 
Valley  as  one  journeys  toward  San  Francisco. 

A  western  spur  of  the  Mt.  Diablo  Range  is  known  as 
the  Contra  Costa  Hills,  inclosing  San  Ramon  and  Liver- 
more  Valleys.  The  southern  portion  of  the  range  lying 
opposite  the  Santa  Clara  Valley  is  the  Mt.  Hamilton 
Range,  rising  4210  feet,  and  containing  the  Lick  Observ- 


The  Coast  Ranges  93 

atory  on  its  culminating  peak.  In  a  southeasterly  direc- 
tion the  range  decreases  in  height,  but  finally  rises  again 
in  San  Carlos  Peak,  in  southeastern  San  Benito  county, 
to  a  height  of  nearly  5000  feet.  From  this  point  the 
mountain  axis  which  we  have  been  describing  rapidly 
sinks,  exhibiting  several  low  passes,  and  finally  blends 
with  the  San  Emegdio  Mountains  south  of  the  San  Joa- 
quin Valley. 

North  of  San  Francisco  Bay  we  still  find  exhibited 
the  northwest  and  southeast  parallelism  of  the  mountains 
and  valleys  of  the  Coast  Ranges.  Here  Napa  and 
Sonoma  Valleys  divide  the  region  into  three  mountain 
axes.  North  of  these  valleys  we  can  no  longer  distinguish 
such  a  division,  and  from  Clear  Lake  on  to  the  Klamath 
Mountains  we  appear  to  be  dealing  with  one  broad  and 
topographically  complex  range. 

The  highest  peaks  of  the  Coast  Ranges  are  found 
along  the  crest  north  of  Clear  Lake.  Here  Snow  Moun- 
tain rises  to  about  8000  feet,  while  other  peaks  connecting 
with  the  Yallo  Bally  Mountains  are  nearly  as  high.  To 
the  southeast  the  Coast  Ranges  also  blend  with  lofty 
mountains,  the  San  Emegdio  Range,  one  peak  of  which 
reaches  nearly  9000  feet. 

Drainage. — The  last  submergence  of  the  coast  flooded 
the  only  large  river  of  the  Coast  Ranges.  San  Francisco, 
San  Pablo,  and  Suisun  bays  now  occupy  the  former 
channel  of  the  Sacramento-San  Joaquin  river.  Many 
small  streams  which  once  entered  this  old  river,  such  as 
Napa,  Petaluma  and  San  Pablo  creeks,  now  empty  direct 
into  San  Pablo  Bay,  while  Alameda  and  Coyote  creeks 
flow  into  the  southern  arm  of  San  Francisco  Bay. 


94  The    Geography    of    California 

Two  other  streams,  which,  from  the  general  character 
of  the  relief  of  this  region,  we  should  judge  would 
enter  San  Francisco  Bay,  turn  before  reaching  it  and 
cut  directly  through  intervening  mountain  axes  to  the 
ocean.  These  are  Russian  river  and  San  Benito  river, 
and  if  you  will  consult  the  relief  map  you  will  see  that 
they  flow  in  opposite  directions  from  the  extreme  ends 
of  the  longest  valley  of  the  Coast  Ranges.  This  valley 
includes  Russian  river  and  Sonoma  valleys,  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay,  Santa  Clara,  and  San  Benito  valleys.  The 
Russian  river  is  separated  by  an  almost  imperceptible 
divide  from  San  Francisco  Bay,  but  leaves  this  unob- 
structed course  and  turns  at  right  angles  and  cuts  a 
canon  through  the  mountains  to  the  ocean.  The  only 
explanation  possible  is  that  when  the  river  -assumed  its 
present  course  the  surface  features  must  have  been  very 
different  from  those  of  the  present.  The  course  which 
now  seems  so  anomalous  was  then  the  most  natural  one. 

The  San  Benito  river  also  flows,  throughout  the  most 
of  its  course,  in  the  direction  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  but 
for  a  reason  probably  similar  to  that  governing  the  direc- 
tion of  the  river  just  described  it  leaves  the  open  valley 
and,  by  means  of  a  canon  through  a  gap  in  the  Santa 
Cruz-Gavilan  Range,  reaches  Monterey  Bay. 

There  are  two  important  drainage  basins  in  the  Coast 
Ranges.  The  largest  of  these  is  that  of  the  Salinas  river, 
but  this  fact  is  far  from  meaning  that  this  is  the  largest 
river.  A  large  part  of  this  region  has  a  very  small  rain- 
fall, so  that  during  the  summer  months  much  of  its  bed 
is  dry  and  covered  with  drifting  sand.  Water,  however, 
can  always  be  obtained  by  digging  in  the  sand,  while 


The  Coast  Ranges  95 

here  and  there  it  comes  to  the  surface.  Much  of  the 
area  of  the  valley  is  treeless  for  lack  of  moisture,  so  that 
during  the  winter  storms  the  water  runs  off  rapidly, 
causing  serious  floods.  The  long  bridges  which  span 
the  drifting  summer  sands  then  come  into  use. 

Much  of  the  area  of  the  valley  land  is  suitable  for  agri- 
culture and  diversified  farming.  Irrigation  is  necessary 
to  make  this  region  support  a  large  population,  but  as 
yet  no  effort  has  been  made  to  conserve  the  winter  flood 
waters. 

The  second  largest  drainage  basin  is  that  of  Eel  river. 
This  contrasts  very  markedly  with  the  Salinas.  The 
rainfall  is  heavy,  the  slopes  are  generally  more  or  less 
forested,  and  the  surface  consists  of  a  very  complex 
grouping  of  mountain  ridges  and  deep  canons,  with  few 
valleys  of  any  size.  Round  .Valley  and  the  extensive 
coastal  plain  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  comprise  the 
largest  agricultural  areas.  The  different  forks  of  Eel 
river  drain  nearly  all  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  Coast 
Ranges. 

The  Santa  Maria  river  drains  the  extreme  southern 
end  of  the  Coast  Ranges,  being  in  reality  practically  on 
the  boundary  of  the  region  as  we  have  defined  it.  The 
rainfall,  except  upon  the  mountains,  is  small,  and  there 
is  but  little  running  water  in  the  summer.  The  Cuyama 
Valley,  at  the  upper  end  of  the  river,  has  a  semi-arid 
climate  and  is  devoted  to  stock  raising.  Near  the  coast 
fruit  and  sugar  beets  are  raised,  in  addition  to  stock. 
In  the  latter  section  the  valleys  widen,  giving  large  areas 
of  lowlands. 


96  The    Geography    of    California 

The  Santa  Maria  river,  or  Cuyama,  as  it  is  known  in 
its  upper  course,  heads  in  that  exceedingly  rugged  com- 
plex of  mountains  from  which  streams  flow  into  the 
Mohave  Desert,  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  the  Coast 
Ranges  and  Southern  California.  The  region  south  of 
the  Santa  Maria  river  we  have  agreed  to  include  in  the 
Southern  California  province.  We  might,  with  just  as 
much  propriety,  include  nearly  the  whole  of  Santa  Bar- 
bara county  in  the  Coast  Ranges,  for  its  mountains  and 
valleys  are  not  separated  by  any  distinguishing  features 
from  the  region  which  we  have  been  describing. 

The  watershed  of  the  Coast  Ranges  is  comparatively 
simple,  and  like  that  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  lies  near  its 
eastern  edge.  The  only  exception  to  this  is  the  Clear 
Lake  basin,  which  is  drained  by  Cache  creek,  which  flows 
easterly,  finally  to  empty  into  the  Sacramento  river. 
Clear  Lake  once  drained  westerly  into  Russian  river,  but 
a  landslide  occurred  below  the  beautiful  blue  lakes, 
which  lie  in  its  old  outlet,  and  the  waters  were  turned 
in  the  opposite  direction.  This  is  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able examples  of  the  reversal  of  the  drainage  which  we 
have  in  California. 

If  the  watershed  of  the  Coast  Ranges  was  near  the 
coast  it  would  supply  much  more  water  to  the  Great 
Valley,  but  there  would  be  little  of  the  moist  coast  area 
which  is  so  favorable  to  dairying,  and  the  growing  of 
beans  and  other  crops.  As  the  topography  exists,  how- 
ever, conditions  favor  the  penetration  of  the  cool  moist 
air  far  inland,  for  many  of  the  valleys  lie  in  the  direction 
of  the  prevailing  winds,  and  open  out  in  funnel  form 
toward  the  ocean. 


The  Coast  Ranges  97 

A  remarkable  feature  in  the  southeastern  portion  of 
the  Coast  Ranges  is  the  Carisa  plain,  a  semi-arid  valley 
fifty  miles  long  and  ten  miles  wide.  This  has  no  outlet 
to  the  sea,  and  thus  resembles  the  sinks  of  the  Great 
Basin.  A  shallow  lake  once  occupied  this  valley,  but  it 
is  now  dry  and  in  its  place  is  a  white  deposit  of  salt  and 
alkali.  At  one  spot  the  lowering  of  the  watershed  fifty 
feet  would  drain  the  valley  into  the  Salinas  river  basin, 
but  the  rainfall  is  so  slight  that  this  has  never  been  broken 
through. 

Climate  of  the  Coastal  Region. — While  the  average 
temperature  differs  but  little  along  the  coast  through  a  dis- 
tance of  1000  miles,  yet  there  is  a  remarkable  difference 
in  the  rainfall.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  already  explained 
that  the  number  and  intensity  of  the  storms  increases 
from  south  to  north. 

The  valleys  of  the  Coast  Ranges  particularly  favor  the 
extension  of  the  influence  of  the  ocean  far  inland,  for 
they  are  not  only  wide  at  their  mouths,  but  also  lie  in 
the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds. 

The  strong  summer  indraft  carries  the  cool  fogs  many 
miles  into  the  interior,  but  only  at  the  strait  of  Carquinez 
do  these  fogs  succeed  in  penetrating  the  Great  Valley, 
cooling  the  delta  region  to  a  temperature  considerably 
lower  than  that  of  the  rest  of  the  valley. 

The  strongest  wind  draft  is  found  in  the  Salinas  Val- 
ley, where  the  ocean  winds  coming  in  from  Monterey 
Bay  finally  attain  almost  the  proportions  of  a  gale.  At 
the  town  of  Salinas  the  wind  is  not  noticeably  strong, 
but  increases  up  the  valley  for  seventy-five  miles.  It 
reaches  the  little  town  of  Bradley  in  the  afternoon,  and 


98  The    Geography    of    California 

blows  very  hard  late  into  the  night,  after  the  wind  has 
gone  down  near  the  ocean. 

Watsonville,  lying  partly  protected  by  the  Santa  Cruz 
Mountains  from  the  prevailing  westerly  winds,  feels  so 
little  the  influence  of  the  ocean  that  it  has  become  an 
important  fruit  growing  district.  Apples,  in  particular, 
do  well  here,  while  they  are  not  raised  successfully  where 
exposed  to  the  ocean  winds. 

The  low  summer  temperature  and  the  foggy  weather 
make  the  coast  region  an  unfavorable  one  for  the  grow- 
ing of  such  fruits  as  oranges,  figs,  and  raisin  grapes. 
Under  favorable  conditions,  where  mountains  shut  off 
the  coast  winds,  oranges  will  mature  and  do  well  as  far 
north  as  Santa  Rosa. 

Interesting  exceptions  to  the  rule  that  it  becomes  cooler 
as  one  ascends  a  mountain  will  appear  all  along  the  coast 
where  it  is  bordered  by  high  mountains.  The  fog  mantle 
does  not  usually  reach  above  1500  feet,  and  while  below 
this  level  the  air  is  cool  and  damp,  above  it  is  warm  and 
pleasant.  This  is  well  illustrated  on  the  slopes  of  Mt. 
Tamalpais  which  has  an  elevation  of  2064  feet.  It  is  a 
striking  experience  to  climb  one  of  the  coast  mountains 
and  pass  all  at  once  from  the  chilly  sunless  atmosphere 
to  the  bright  warm  sun  and  see  below  the  great  ocean 
of  fog  encircling  the  mountains. 

This  sea  fog  occurs  only  during  the  dry  season,  and  is 
at  its  worst  during  June,  July  and  August.  Whenever, 
during  this  summer  season,  an  area  of  high  air  pressure 
exists  in  Eastern  California  and  Nevada  the  air  currents 
are  reversed  and  blow  from  the  land  toward  the  ocean, 
giving  clear  hot  summer  weather  similar  to  that  of  the 


The  Coast  Ranges  99 

interior.  They  usually  last  about  three  days,  when  the 
fog  comes  in  again. 

Sometimes,  for  days  in  succession,  the  temperature 
varies  along  the  coast  not  more  than  10  degrees  in 
twenty-four  hours,  while  in  the  interior  there  may  be  a 
daily  range  of  40  degrees. 

Taking  everything  into  account  there  is  no  more 
attractive  region  in  the  world  than  the  Coast  Ranges. 
The  ordinary  extremes  of  temperature,  both  winter  and 
summer,  are  modified  by  the  nearness  to  the  ocean,  so 
that  not  only  is  the  climate  pleasant  most  of  the  year, 
but  it  is  possible  to  grow  a  great  variety  of  fruits. 
Besides  these  things  the  valleys  have  a  park-like  appear- 
ance on  account  of  the  oaks,  and  there  is  in  most  parts 
water  in  abundance. 

Mountain  Passes:  Lines  of  Communication. — If 
we  were  to  pick  out  the  pass  or  gateway  in  California 
which  is  of  greatest  economic  importance  we  should 
have  to  select  Carquinez  Strait,  which  permits  of  water 
traffic  between  San  Francisco  Bay  and  the  Great  Central 
Valley.  Streams,  valleys,  and  railroads  radiate  from  the 
bay  region  to  nearly  half  the  State. 

Unless  our  attention  is  drawn  particularly  to  the  fact, 
we  do  not  realize  how  intimately  the  settlement  and 
development  of  the  different  parts  of  the  State  have  been 
affected  by  geographic  conditions.  While  the  Russians 
once  made  a  settlement  known  as  Fort  Ross,  on  the 
coast  of  California,  and  held  it  for  nearly  a  third  of  a 
century,  they  did  not  succeed  in  penetrating  inland,  for 
the  reason  that  the  mountains  and  valleys  at  that  point 
extend  parallel  with  the  coast  instead  of  opening  out  to  it. 


100  The    Geography    of   California 

Humboldt  Bay  and  San  Diego  Bay  are  the  best  two 
bays,  excepting  San  Francisco  Bay,  and  cities  destined 
to  be  of  great  importance  are  growing  up  on  each  of 
these,  but  their  progress  has  been  delayed  because  of  land 
barriers.  Humboldt  Bay  and  the  tributary  valleys  are 
separated  by  a  rugged  and  mountainous  country  from 
the  rest  of  the  State.  Eureka  is  growing  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  it  has  had  only  water  communication  with  San 
Francisco.  It  is  reached  by  stage  line  from  the  railroad 
which  runs  up  Russian  river  valley.  Now  this  railroad 
is  being  extended  and  will  soon  reach  Humboldt  Bay. 
Owing  to  the  steep  mountains  and  deep  canons  there  is 
no  communication  with  the  Sacramento  Valley  otherwise 
than  by  trails,  but  as  there  are  large  bodies  of  valuable 
timber  in  the  Klamath  Mountains  a  railroad  will 
undoubtedly  be  built  some  time  across  this  region. 

Except  at  a  few  points  where  high  mountains  come 
directly  down  to  the  sea,  there  is  a  strip  of  land  which 
we  might  call  a  coastal  plain,  varying  in  width  from  a 
fourth  of  a  mile  to  several  miles,  along  the  whole  coast 
of  California.  This  coastal  plain  supports  a  considerable 
population  and  important  industries,  chief  of  which  are 
lumbering  and  dairying.  Nearly  all  points  on  this  strip 
of  land  are  reached  by  wagon  roads  over  the  mountains, 
but  most  of  the  traffic  is  by  boat.  Owing  to  the  general 
absence  of  protected  bays  the  boats  are  anchored  at 
favorable  points  where  deep  water  comes  up  close  to  the 
shore  and  their  cargoes  are  taken  on  by  a  cable. 

A  number  of  passes  lead  across  the  Mt.  Diablo  Range, 
which,  as  has  already  been  stated,  forms  the  watershed 
of  that  portion  of  the  Coast  Ranges  lying  southeast  of 


The  Coast  Ranges  101 

San  Francisco  Bay.  The  lowest  of  these  leads  through 
Niles  Canon  to  Livermore  Valley,  and  thence  over  the 
mountains  through  a  low  pass  to  the  San  Joaquin  Valley. 
Farther  south  are  the  Pacheco,  Panoche,  Palonia,  Palo 
Prieta,  and  Templor  passes,  none  of  which  are  much 
less  than  2500  feet  in  elevation.  Several  of  these  will 
some  time  be  occupied  by  railroads. 

Owing  to  the  rugged  character  of  much  of  the  coastal 
region  the  early  padres  experienced  great  difficulty  in 
working  their  way  northward  from  San  Diego.  The 
route  of  the  exploring  parties  finally  became  the  main 
line  of  travel  between  Los  Angeles  and  San  Francisco, 
and  is  known  as  the  Camino  Real.  This  route  led  from 
Los  Angeles  to  San  Fernando,  thence  to  San  Buena- 
ventura, and  up  the  coast  to  Santa  Barbara.  From  here 
the  coast  was  followed  to  Gaviota  Pass,  an  important 
gap  in  the  Santa  Ynez  Range;  then  it  turned  inland  to 
Mission  Santa  Ynez,  from  which  point  valleys  were 
followed  through  to  San  Luis  Obispo.  Here  the  Santa 
Lucia  Range  was  crossed  through  Cuesta  Pass  to  the 
beautiful  Santa  Margarita  Valley,  on  the  headwaters  of 
the  Salinas  river.  It  was  an  easy  matter  to  follow  the 
Salinas  Valley  down  past  Soledad  Mission,  and  then 
over  a  spur  of  the  Gavilan  Range  to  San  Juan  Mission, 
a  few  miles  from  the  present  city  of  Hollister.  From 
this  point  on  north  it  was  a  mere  matter  of  following 
open  valleys  to  San  Francisco. 

The  coast  of  California  consists  of  rocky  headlands 
alternating  with  long  stretches  of  sandy  beach.  A  study 
of  the  coast  tells  us  many  interesting  things  about  the 
geographical   history   of  this   region.      Changes   in  the 


102  The    Geography    of    California 

height  of  the  land  relative  to  the  sea  seem  ever  to  have 
been  going  on.  It  is  believed  that  while  there  were 
glaciers  in  the  high  mountains  the  land  stood  so  much 
higher  that  the  present  islands  were  a  part  of  the  main 
land.  Then  the  coastal  valleys  and  plains  were  much  more 
extensive  than  now,  as  shown  by  the  soundings,  and  gave 
to  the  coast  region  quite  a  different  aspect.  When  the  land 
sank  it  went  down  so  far  that  there  was  but  little  land 
left  in  what  is  now  Western  California,  the  Coast  Ranges 
being  cut  up  into  islands,  bays  and  peninsulas. 

We  know  that  the  land  sank  to  a  point  fully  1500  feet 
below  the  present  because  of  the  remnant  of  a  boulder 
beach  at  that  elevation  near  the  top  of  the  mountain 
ridge  back  of  Fort  Ross.  We  have  evidence  that  after 
this  the  land  rose  again  to  a  point  several  hundred  feet 
above  the  present  level,  exposing  the  margin  of  the  old 
coastal  plain.  The  last  sinking  of  the  land  has  drowned 
a  portion  of  this  again,  so  that  in  places  steep  mountain 
slopes  rise  directly  out  of  the  sea.  It  is  interesting  to 
speculate  upon  the  possibilities  of  agriculture  in  the 
different  stages  of  this  development. 

An  examination  of  the  cliff  cut  by  the  waves  along  the 
coastal  plain  will  show  in  many  places  remnants  of  the 
ancient  sea  beach,  with  boulders,  pebbles  and  shells, 
formed  when  the  coastal  plain  was  a  portion  of  the 
marginal  sea  floor. 

The  waves  are  now  eating  their  way  into  the  land  on 
all  exposed  shores  and  making  a  new  sea  floor  which  at 
some,  future  time  may  be  uplifted  to  form  a  new  coastal 
plain.  The  old  levels  of  the  sea,  or  terraces  as  we  com- 
monly call  them,  stand  out  distinctly  along  the  coast  of 


The  Coast  Ranges  103 

Mendocino  and  Sonoma  counties,  and  south  of  the  bay 
region  in  Santa  Cruz  and  San  Luis  Obispo  counties. 

Old  Levels  of  the  Mountains. — Our  study  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Range  has  shown  us  that  long  ago  the 
mountains  were  low  and  that  the  streams  flowed  at  a 
gentle  grade  through  broad  valleys.  The  watersheds 
were  so  worn  down  that  they  presented  a  very  even  sky 
line,  with  only  here  and  there  an  elevation  which  stood 
out  distinctly.  We  have  unraveled  a  similar  story  in 
the  geographic  features  of  the  Klamath  Mountains  and 
Coast  Ranges.  Their  western  slopes  were  buried  beneath 
the  sea  up  to  a  level  1500  feet  above  the  present.  The 
remaining  land  was  low,  and  there  were  none  of  the 
present  canons,  the  streams  flowing  through  broad  val- 
leys. The  whole  region  of  the  northern  Coast  Ranges 
and  Klamath  Mountains  was  so  worn  down  that  the 
surface,  save  scattered  elevations  about  the  heads  of  the 
streams,  had  a  plain-like  character.  The  outline  of  this 
old  plain  can  now  be  seen  from  many  points  in  this 
region.  A  trip  through  it  also  shows  many  remnants  of 
the  old  surface  in  the  flat-topped  ridges  between  the 
present  canons. 

The  central  and  southern  Coast  Ranges  present  more 
of  a  diversified  character,  and  have  been  more  broken 
by  subsequent  movements,  but  here  and  there  remnants 
of  an  ancient  surface  of  low  relief  can  be  seen.  This  is 
notably  true  in  the  case  of  the  even  sky-line  forming  the 
top  of  the  Santa  Lucia  Range,  and  in  the  general  char- 
acter of  the  whole  Salinas  river  basin,  where  gentle 
slopes  and  flat-topped  ridges  abound.  Through  these  the 
present  streams  have  cut  canons  and  valleys,  thus  adapt- 


104  The    Geography    of    California 

ing  the  slope  of  their  beds  to  the  present  level  of  the  land. 
The  flat  ridges  are  of  great  economic  importance,  par- 
ticularly upon  the  northern  coastal  region,  for  they  are 
exposed  to  climatic  conditions  which  adapt  them  particu- 
larly to  fruit  growing. 

The  different  stages  of  the  uplift  of  the  land  from  that 
time  of  depression  and  low  relief  are  shown  upon  both 
sides  of  the  Santa  Cruz  Mountains,  in  the  form  of 
benches  or  terraces.  River  terraces  appear  at  many 
points  along  the  Salinas,  at  one  point  six  terraces,  one 
above  the  other,  can  be  counted  in  the  hard  rocks.  The 
Arroyo  Seco,  rising  in  the  Santa  Lucia  Range  and  flow- 
ing northeasterly  into  the  Salinas,  exhibits  the  most 
perfect  terraces  of  any  stream  in  the  State. 

Ancient  Volcanoes. — The  most  of  the  many  vol- 
canoes which  once  existed  in  the  Coast  Ranges  have  been 
worn  away,  but  there  still  remain  many  extensive  bodies 
of  lava,  some  of  which  are  very  ancient.  The  last  vol- 
canic eruptions  covered  a  large  area  of  country  between 
San  Pablo  Bay  and  Clear  Lake,  and  it  is  on  the  southern 
edge  of  the  latter  body  of  water  that  volcanic  mountains 
and  craters  still  exist.  Here  rises  Mt.  Konocti,  or  Uncle 
Sam,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  to  a  height  of  4246  feet. 
Mt.  St.  Helena  is  another  lofty  peak,  a  few  miles  to  the 
south,  which  has  an  elevation  of  4300  feet,  and  although 
formed  of  lava,  gives  no  indications  of  ever  having  been 
a  volcano. 

About  Clear  Lake  are  innumerable  mineral  springs  of 
various  kinds,  some  hot  and  some  cold.  At  the  eastern 
end  of  the  lake  is  the  noted  Sulphur  Bank,  where  sul- 
phur and  cinnabar   are   still  being  deposited   from  hot 


The  Coast  Ranges  105 

springs.  Borax  Lake,  a  small  body  of  water  close  under 
the  northern  side  of  Uncle  Sam,  occupies  what  is  prob- 
ably an  explosive  crater.  On  account  of  the  presence 
of  mineral  springs,  as  well  as  a  pleasant  summer  climate, 
this  region  is  much  resorted  to  for  health  and  pleasure. 
The  mineral  springs  are  directly  related  to  the  recent 
volcanic  activity,  and  show  that  far  below  the  surface 
this  is  not  yet  extinct.  It  might  be  instructive  to  remark 
here  that  while  in  many  parts  of  the  earth  the  earthquakes 
are  due  directly  to  volcanic  action,  yet  in  this  section,  as 
well  as  over  California  as  a  whole,  the  frequent  earth- 
quakes are  due  to  an  entirely  different  cause. 

The  Great  Earthquake  Rift. — The  Great  Earth- 
quake Rift,  or  San  Andreas  fault,  as  it  is  called  in  the 
Carnegie  Report,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and 
interesting  features  of  the  Coast  Ranges,  if  not  of  the 
whole  world. 

The  rift  is  a  fracture  in  the  earth's  crust  of  unknown 
length,  and  along  which  movements  have  taken  place 
for  many  thousands  of  years.  It  is  due  to  a  strain  in  the 
crust,  similar  in  some  ways,  although  upon  a  much 
larger  scale,  to  other  rifts  which  have  been  concerned 
in  the  making  of  the  mountains  of  the  West. 

The  known  length  of  the  rift  is  about  700  miles,  but 
neither  end  has  yet  been  found.  It  appears  first  upon 
the  north  a  little  distance  southeast  of  Eureka,  in  Hum- 
boldt county,  and  is  traceable  southeasterly  through  the 
Coast  Ranges  and  finally  into  the  Colorado  Desert. 

Previous  to  the  great  earthquake  of  1906  a  part  of  this 
line  had  been   recognized  and   studied  by  geographers 


106  The    Geography    of    California 

who  saw  in  the  peculiar  surface  features  indications  of 
comparatively  recent  movements. 

The  features  by  which  we  have  come  to  know  the  rift 
are  low  ridges  and  escarpments,  hollows,  ponds,  lakes, 
springs  and  meadows.  The  topography  has  been  greatly 
modified  along  this  line  because  of  the  easy  erosion  of 
the  broken  and  crushed  rocks.  Canons,  long  narrow 
valleys  and  passes  make  it  convenient  to  use  the  rift  line 
for  roads  and  trails,  and  this,  together  with  the  existence 
of  springs  and  meadows,  gives  it  great  economic  impor- 
tance. 

The  part  of  the  Great  Rift  appearing  upon  the  land 
begins  its  main  course  a  few  miles  east  of  Pt.  Arena, 
where  it  comes  in  from  the  sea.  It  passes  up  the  Gualala 
river  canon  and  over  a  spur  of  the  mountains  and  goes 
into  the  sea  a  little  distance  southeast  of  Ft.  Ross.  It 
is  seen  again  on  the  neck  of  land  north  of  Tomales  Bay, 
then  passing  up  the  bay  traverses  a  long  valley  to 
Bolinas  Bay.  The  rift  passes  outside  the  Golden  Gate 
and  strikes  the  land  again  six  miles  south  of  the  Cliff 
House.  It  now  skirts  the  eastern  base  of  the  Santa  Cruz 
Mountains,  and  crossing  them  passes  close  to  the  San 
Juan  Mission  and  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  Gavilan 
Range.  From  this  point  we  trace  it  to  the  Cholame 
Valley,  and  then  finally  into  and  through  the  whole 
length  of  the  Carisa  plain.  The  remaining  portion 
belongs  in  Southern  California,  and  will  be  described 
later. 

The  earthquake  of  1906  opened  the  northern  half  of 
the  rift,  making  a  sixteen-foot  horizontal  displacement 
near  Pt.  Arena.     This  decreased  to  a  foot  or  less  near 


The  Coast  Ranges  107 

San  Juan  in  San  Benito  county.  The  southern  half  of 
the  rift  opened  in  the  great  Tejon  earthquake  of  1857. 

We  might  as  well  recognize  the  fact  that  earthquakes 
may  happen  any  time  along  this  rift,  and  be  prepared  to 
meet  them.  Earthquake  movements  similar  to  that  of 
1906  have  been  the  main  factor  in  the  origin  of  our  lofty 
mountains  and  magnificent  scenery,  and  I  am  sure  that 
with  this  insight  we  should  be  willing  to  take  them  philo- 
sophically. 

Natural  Resources. — The  Coast  Ranges  are  distin- 
guished from  most  of  the  other  mountains  of  California 
in  that  they  contain  few  deposits  of  the  precious  metals. 
Cinnabar,  the  ore  of  quicksilver,  is  the  most  important 
mineral  product,  unless  we  except  petroleum.  It  is  found 
in  many  places  in  the  region  southeast  of  Clear  Lake,  at 
New  Almaden,  near  San  Jose,  where  it  was  first  mined 
in  the  State;  at  New  Idria,  in  San  Benito  county,  and 
in  San  Luis  Obispo  county.  California  is  the  one  impor- 
tant quicksilver  producing  State  in  the  Union. 

Small  quantities  of  a  poor  variety  of  coal  are  found  at 
various  points,  the  most  important  being  in  eastern  Mon- 
terey county.  But  little  is  mined  at  the  present  time. 
The  enormous  deposits  of  petroleum,  suitable  for  fuel, 
which  have  recently  been  discovered  will  certainly  take 
the  place  of  coal.  We  should  perhaps  distinguish  the 
different  origin  of  these  two  substances.  Coal  is  in  no 
way  related  to  petroleum,  for  it  required  swampy  or 
marshy  areas  and  a  warm,  moist  climate  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  a  luxuriant  vegetation.  It  was  further  neces- 
sary, after  the  accumulation  of  a  great  thickness  of  vege- 
table matter,  that  these  areas  should  sink  beneath  the 


108  The    Geography   of   California 

sea  and  became  covered  deeply  by  other  rock  accumula- 
tions. Petroleum,  on  the  contrary,  is  formed  from 
accumulated  remains  of  countless  organisms,  the  most  of 
them  microscopic,  in  the  depths  of  the  sea. 

The  chief  deposits  of  petroleum  of  the  Coast  Ranges 
are  in  the  southern  part,  the  most  important  field  yet 
developed  being  the  Santa  Maria  field  in  western  Santa 
Barbara  county.  Petroleum  is  also  found  here  and  there 
over  the  region  between  San  Francisco  and  Santa  Maria, 
wherever  exist  the  so-called  "bituminous  shales,"  or  oil 
shales  which,  as  we  have  seen,  were  formed  long  ago  in 
the  deep  sea.  Asphaltum  is  the  term  "applied  to  an  oil 
which  has  become  solid  from  the  evaporation  of  its  vola- 
tile constituents,  while  bituminous  rock  is  a  vsand  impreg- 
nated with  a  thick  tar-like  oil.  This  is  quarried  and  used 
extensively  for  paving  streets. 

The  distribution  and  importance  of  the  forests  of  the 
Coast  Ranges  is  dependent  upon  the  amount  of  rainfall. 
Slope,  exposure  and  soil  also  influence  the  growth  of 
vegetation.  Nearly  all  the  valleys  are  dotted  with  oaks, 
while  many  of  the  mountain  slopes,  particularly  toward 
the  south,  are  covered  with  brush. 

The  most  characteristic  tree  is  the  redwood  {Sequoia 
sempervirens)  which  occurs  in  groves,  whose  trees  are 
of  giant  size,  from  the  Oregon  line  south  to  Monterey 
county.  These  trees  occur  in  greatest  numbers  in  Del 
Norte,  Humboldt  and  Mendocino  counties,  with  some 
extensive  groves  in  Santa  Cruz,  Sonoma  and  Marin 
counties.  Its  natural  home  appears  to  be  the  moist 
canons  and  lowlands  near  the  coast  wherever  they  are 
more  or  less  protected  from  the  direct  ocean  winds.    One 


The  Coast  Ranges  109 

of  the  largest  of  the  groves  in  the  Santa  Cruz  Mountains 
is  found  in  Big  Basin,  and  has  been  reserved  as  a  State 
park.  Another  grove  in  Redwood  Canon,  at  the  southern 
base  of  Tamalpais,  has  been  preserved  from  destruction 
and  is  now  known  as  Muir  Woods. 

The  redwood  has  a  remarkable  vitality,  and  is  likely 
to  survive  as  an  important  tree  for  the  use  of  our  descen- 
dants in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  many  to  clear  the  ground 
on  which  it  grows  and  use  it  for  other  purposes.  The 
tree  sprouts  from  the  roots  and  stump,  and  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  kill  it  unless  the  stump  is  burned  up.  Much 
of  the  land  on  which  the  redwood  grows  is  more  impor- 
tant for  growing  trees  than  for  anything  else,  and  people 
should  be  prohibited  from  carrying  out  their  foolish 
efforts  to  kill  these  trees. 

Of  limited  importance,  as  a  source  of  lumber,  are  the 
other  trees  of  the  Coast  Ranges.  There  are  some  spruce 
and  pine,  and  oak  which  is  largely  used  for  fuel,  although 
much  of  it  would  be  valuable  for  commercial  purposes. 
The  tan-bark  oak,  although  a  valuable  hardwood  tree,  has 
been  cut  in  large  quantities  and  only  the  bark  saved. 
Such  is  the  criminal  waste  of  our  resources  which  has 
been,  and  is  still  going  on  in  this  region.  Madrone  and 
laurel  are  scattered  over  the  more  moist  slopes,  and  the 
digger  pine  in  the  drier  mountains.  The  oaks — both 
white  oak  and  live  oak — give  a  most  beautiful  appear- 
ance to  many  of  the  valleys  of  this  region. 

The  water  power  available  in  the  Coast  Ranges  is  small 
in  comparison  with  that  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  for  the 
main  streams  flow  down  to  the  sea  with  a  gentle  grade. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Coast  Ranges  lie  outside  of 


110  The    Geography    of    California 

the  area  of  glaciation,  except  for  one  or  two  small  areas 
we  find  here  but  few  lakes,  Clear  Lake  being  the  only 
one  of  any  size. 

The  stock  raising  and  grain  industries  of  earlier  days 
have  in  large  part  given  place  to  fruit  growing,  particu- 
larly in  the  valleys  about  the  San  Francisco  Bay  region, 
where  there  is  good  transportation  to  market.  A  most 
remarkable  combination  of  climatic  conditions  permits 
the  growing  of  a  great  variety  of  fruits,  such  as  pears, 
peaches,  apricots,  cherries,  apples,  etc.  In  Napa  and 
Sonoma  valleys  large  quantities  of  wine  grapes  are 
grown  in  addition  to  those  for  table  use.  In  the  warmer 
valleys  there  are  fig  and  olive  orchards,  and  there  is 
little  doubt  that  the  lemon  and  orange  could  be  success- 
fully grown. 


Southern  California  111 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
SOUTHERN    CALIFORNIA. 

Relief  and  Drainage. — That  part  of  California  lying 
south  of  Tehachapi  is  a  region  of  great  diversity  of  surface 
and  climate.  Although  it  extends  through  only  two  and 
one-half  degrees  of  latitude  it  would  be  difficult  to  find 
another  area  of  the  same  size  which  offers  a  wider  range 
of  life  conditions  and  so  great  a  variety  of  sub-tropical 
and  temperate  productions.  Mountains  whose  tops  are 
white  with  snow  through  half  the  year  look  down  on 
the  one  hand  on  highly  cultivated  valleys  stretching  away 
to  the  sea,  and  on  the  other  hand  over  the  scorching 
sands  of  the  Mohave  and  Colorado  deserts. 

Southern  California  is  divided  by  a  series  of  mountain 
ranges  into  two  strongly  contrasted  parts.  The  western 
one  slopes  to  the  ocean,  and  until  recently  contained 
nearly  all  the  population.  The  eastern  one  possesses  no 
external  drainage,  and  consists  for  the  most  part  of  bar- 
ren mountains  and  desert  valleys.  This  interior  region 
is  geographically  a  part  of  the  Great  Basin,  and  we  shall 
take  it  up  under  the  head  of  the  latter  region. 

We  shall,  then,  include  under  the  designation  Southern 
California  only  that  portion  of  the  State  lying  on  the  sea- 
ward slope  south  of  Tehachapi,  or  more  strictly  speaking, 
south  of  a  line  drawn  westerly  from  the  extreme  south- 
ern end  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley.  Southern  California, 
although  very  complex  in  detail,  is,  as  thus  defined,  a 
geographic  unit.     It  includes  Santa  Barbara,  Ventura, 


112  The    Geography   of   California 

Los  Angeles,  Orange,  San  Diego  and  the  western  por- 
tions of  San  Bernardino  and  Riverside  counties. 

The  mountains  of  Southern  California  are  so  diverse 
in  character,  and  at  first  sight  so  confusedly  arranged, 
that  it  is  not  easy  to  reduce  them  to  any  kind  of  order 
for  the  purpose  of  study.  We  can  distinguish,  however, 
two  main  groups  or  systems.  One  forms  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  province,  having  a  general  east  and  west 
direction.  The  other  lies  to  the  south,  and  with  its  spurs 
has  a  direction  nearly  north  and  south.  As  we  follow  it 
south  into  Lower  California  it  forms  what  in  general 
terms  is  called  the  Peninsula  Range. 

The  mountains  occupying  the  northern  portion  of  the 
Southern  California  province  appear  from  ihe  relief  map 
to  be  really  a  continuation  of  the  Coast  Ranges  which  in 
Santa  Barbara  county  turn  more  toward  the  east,  become 
high  and  rugged,  and  exceedingly  complex.  Nearly  the 
whole  of  eastern  Santa  Barbara  county  is  a  mass  of 
mountains.  The  most  important  and  distinct  single 
range  is  the  Santa  Ynez,  whose  western  end  forms  Point 
Conception,  and  whose  position  determined  the  abrupt 
change  in  the  direction  of  the  coast  line  of  Santa  Barbara 
county.  To  the  north  is  San  Rafael  Range,  Cuyama 
Range  and  the  Mt.  Diablo  Range,  all  of  which  blend  in 
an  easterly  direction  in  the  San  Emegdio  Mountains. 
The  relief  map  shows  these  mountains  to  be  a  part  of  the 
main  northerly  group  which  separates  Southern  California 
from  the  desert,  and  as  we  follow  them  easterly  we  pass 
successively  the  San  Gabriel  and  San  Bernardino  ranges. 
East  of  the  latter  the  chain  of  mountains  turns  again  in 
a  southerly  direction,  skirting  the  northern  edge  of  the 


Southern  California  113 

Colorado  Desert  as  far  as  the  Colorado  river.  The 
Santa  Susana  and  other  local  ranges  of  Ventura  county, 
the  Santa  Monica  Range  and  the  Verdugo  Mountains 
we  will  group  with  this  main  axis  forming  the  northern 
border  of  Southern  California. 

The  complex  of  mountains  of  eastern  Santa  Barbara 
and  northern  Ventura  counties,  which  unite  in  the  San 
Emegdio  Mountains,  forms  one  of  the  most  sparsely  set- 
tled districts  of  California.  There  is  comparatively  little 
land  suited  to  farming,  while  the  mountain  slopes,  either 
covered  with  dense  brush  or  scattering  timber,  make  it 
of  little  value  as  a  grazing  region.  The  mountains  rise 
from  5000  to  7000  feet,  culminating  in  Frazer  Mountain, 
8026  feet  in  height,  and  Pine  Mountain,  8826  feet.  These 
two  peaks  of  the  San  Emegdio  Mountains  rise  from  a 
plateau-like  base  which  has  an  elevation  of  5000  feet, 
and  contains  several  large  valleys  overgrown  with  sage- 
brush. Pine  timber  covers  the  two  peaks  mentioned,  as 
well  as  other  mountains  which  rise  above  6000  feet. 

The  San  Emegdio  Mountains  illustrate  extremely  well 
the  almost  inconceivable  geographic  changes  which  have 
taken  place  in  this  part  of  California  in  comparatively 
recent  times.  We  learn  from  the  topography  that  once 
no  barriers  separated  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  from  the 
Mohave  Desert,  and  that  the  latter  region  sloped  away 
toward  the  ocean,  with  no  intervening  watershed  or 
mountains. 

The  drainage  is  away  from  the  San  Emegdio  Moun- 
tains in  all  directions.  On  the  north  San  Emegdio  Canon 
drains  into  the  Great  Valley.  On  the  west  is  the  Cuyama 
river,  while  on  the  south  are  the  Piru  and  Sespe,  tribu- 


114  The    Geography   of   California 

taries  of  the  Santa  Clara  river.  The  Santa  Ynez  and 
Sisquoc  rivers  drain  west  across  Santa  Barbara  county 
from  the  group  of  mountains  about  which  we  have  been 
talking.  The  Santa  Ynez  Valley,  with  its  tributaries, 
includes  the  larger  part  of  the  agricultural  land  of  the 
county  aside  from  the  strip  of  land  lying  along  the  sea 
at  the  southern  base  of  the  Santa  Ynez  Range. 

The  most  important  stream  of  Ventura  county  is  the 
Santa  Clara  river,  whose  direct  course  to  the  sea  through 
a  mountainous  region  shows  that  it  occupies  a  line  of 
folding  or  faulting  of  the  earth's  crust.  The  headwaters 
of  the  river  extend  away  back  into  the  mountains,  almost 
cutting  them  into  two  parts.  At  one  point  known  as 
Soledad  Pass  there  is  such  a  low  gap  between  the  Mohave 
Desert  and  this  stream  that  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad 
easily  crosses  the  watershed  on  the  route  from  Bakers- 
field  to  Los  Angeles. 

Parallel  mountains  border  the  Santa  Clara  river  nearly 
all  the  way  to  the  sea.  On  the  south,  and  separating  it 
from  San  Fernando  Valley,  is  the  Santa  Susana  Range, 
and  on  the  north,  lower  down  in  its  course,  Sulphur 
Ridge  separates  the  river  from  the  Ojai,  a  picturesque 
and  fertile  valley.  The  mountains  upon  both  sides  of 
the  river  throughout  the  middle  part  of  its  course  contain 
valuable  oil  deposits. 

The  southern  portion  of  Ventura  county  is  made  up 
in  part  of  a  rolling  plateau  dotted  with  oaks.  South  of 
this  rises  the  Santa  Monica  Range  which,  in  its  east  and 
west  course,  determines  the  direction  of  the  adjoining 
coast  line.  These  mountains  rise  directly  from  the  sea 
throughout  the  western  half  of  their  course,  and  then 


Southern  Calif onnia  115 

pass  inland  forming  the  northern  boundary  of  the  fertile 
plain  of  Los  Angeles,  and  separating  it  from  the  San 
Fernando  Valley. 

San  Fernando  is  a  large  valley  lying  north  of  the  Santa 
Monica  Range,  and  is  bounded  on  the  east  and  north  by 
the  San  Gabriel  and  Santa  Susana  mountains.  It  is 
extremely  fertile  and  possesses  a  good  climate.  When 
supplied  with  sufficient  water,  as  it  is  likely  to  be  when 
the  Los  Angeles  aqueduct  is  finished,  the  valley  will 
become  one  of  the  garden  spots  of  Southern  California. 

From  a  study  of  the  relief  map  one  would  judge  that 
the  main  mountain  axis  of  Southern  California,  which 
in  its  different  parts  is  known  as  the  San  Emegdio,  San 
Gabriel  and  San  Bernardino  mountains,  is  a  unit  as 
regards  its  history  and  development,  just  as  is  that  great 
mountain  block,  the  Sierra  Nevada.  Such  is  not  the 
case,  however,  for  the  Cajon  Pass  marks  an  important 
break  between  the  San  Bernardino  Mountains  and  the 
central  and  western  portion  of  the  axis.  The  two  parts 
are  of  a  different  age  and  have  had  a  very  different 
history,  and  this,  as  we  shall  see  later,  has  an  important 
economic  aspect. 

As  one  looks  southerly  across  the  wide  expanse  of  the 
Mohave  Desert  he  sees  a  continuous  mountain  wall  which 
forms  the  northern  face  of  the  axis  of  which  we  have 
been  speaking.  At  the  western  end  where  the  Tehachapi 
Range  joins  this,  rises  the  lofty  rounded  top  of  Frazier 
Mountain.  Following  these  mountains  in  an  easterly 
direction  along  the  southern  border  of  the  desert,  we 
find  them  decreasing  in  height,  with  several  low  passes 
leading  over  the  watershed  to  the  Pacific  slope.    Among 


116  The    Geography   of    California 

these  is  Elizabeth  Lake  Canon,  Francisquita  Pass, 
through  which  the  old  Los  Angeles-Bakersfield  stage 
route  used  to  go,  and  to  the  east,  Soledad  Pass  used  by 
the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad.  East  of  the  latter  pass 
the  mountains  begin  to  rise  again,  and  from  this  point  to 
Cajon  Pass  are  known  as  the  Sierra  Madre  or  San 
Gabriel  Range.  The  former  term  was  given  by  the  early 
Spaniards,  meaning  Mother  of  Mountains.  This  is 
peculiarly  appropriate,  since  recent  geographic  investiga- 
tions have  shown  this  range  to  be  one  of  the  oldest  of 
the  lofty  mountains  of  Southern  California.  The  bold 
southern  front  which  adds  so  much  to  the  scenery  of 
Southern  California,  is  an  ancient  fault  escarpment  which, 
although  deeply  cut  by  numberless  canonst  is  remarkably 
well  preserved.  Its  origin  is  the  same  as  the  bold  face 
of  the  San  Bernardino  Range  and  the  eastern  wall  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada. 

Each  of  the  successive  stages  in  the  history  of  a 
mountain  range  has,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  case  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  its  own  peculiar  topographic  features. 
The  rolling  uplands  and  plateau-like  areas  between  the 
canons  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  are  remnants  of  an  ancient 
surface  which  existed  before  the  range  was  uplifted  and 
running  water  had  an  opportunity  to  erode  the  existing 
canons.  As  time  goes  on  and  the  work  of  water  con- 
tinues these  canons  will  be  widened  and  the  slopes  of 
their  walls  reduced  until  no  part  of  the  old  surface 
remains.  The  upland  surface  will  have  all  gone  and 
there  will  be  left  simply  canons  and  valleys,  with  their 
slopes  terminating  in  sharp  divides.  This  is  the  period 
so  interestingly  shown  in  the  San  Gabriel  Range.    It  is 


Southern  California  117 

simply  a  network  of  steep,  narrow  canons  and  sharp 
ridges.  There  is  scarcely  100  acres  of  cultivatable  upland 
in  the  whole  range.  Valleys  are  also  absent,  for  the 
streams  are  not  widening  their  canons  to  any  extent. 

The  surface  of  the  steep  mountain  slopes  has  been  so 
injured  in  past  years  by  sheep  and  forest  fires  that  in  many 
places  where  there  once  existed  a  strip  of  bottom  land 
we  now  find  a  barren,  gravelly  flood  plain.  This  is  well 
♦shown  in  the  East  Fork  of  the  San  Gabriel  river.  There 
are  few  springs  on  the  upper  slopes,  and  no  true  meadows 
occur  in  any  part  of  the  range.  The  San  Gabriel  Range 
exhibits  a  stage  of  development  which  makes  it  of  the 
least  possible  economic  importance.  This  is  far  from 
saying  that  the  range  does  not  play  an  important  part 
in  the  making  of  Southern  California.  Wherever  there 
are  lofty  elevations  in  an  arid  or  semi-arid  land  there  we 
find  the  precipitation  increased,  and  so  the  San  Gabriel 
Range  plays  an  important  part  as  a  source  of  a  needed 
water  supply.  The  higher  portions  of  the  range  are  tim- 
bered, but  the  most  of  this  is  quite  inaccessible,  and 
besides  is  needed  to  protect  the  surface  and  retain  the 
water. 

The  San  Gabriel  is  a  great  block  of  the  earth's  crust 
which  was  once  continuous  with  the  Mohave  Desert,  but 
at  some  remote  time  was  folded  upward  and  broken 
along  its  southern  face.  While  no  level  upland  remains, 
yet  the  even  sky-line  of  the  ridges  brings  out  the  original 
character  of  the  surface.  The  crest  of  the  range  has  an 
average  elevation  of  6000  to  7000  feet,  while  the  highest 
peak,  San  Antonio,  or  Baldy,  as  it  is  commonly  called, 
reaches  10,080  feet. 


118  The    Geography    of    California 

Big  Rock  creek  and  Little  Rock  creek  are  the  main 
streams  flowing  into  the  Mohave  Desert  on  the  north. 
The  Santa  Clara  river  drains  the  northwestern  portion, 
and  the  Tejunga  river,  source  of  the  Los  Angeles  water 
supply,  occupies  the  western  slope.  In  no  part  of  South- 
ern California  is  the  damage  done  by  forest  fires  more 
apparent  than  in  the  Tejunga  basin.  If  this  were  refor- 
ested so  that  the  slopes  and  the  beds  of  the  streams  were 
protected  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  there  is  no 
question  but  the  water  supply  furnished  by  this  stream 
system  would  be  greatly  increased. 

Little  Rock  creek  flows  easterly,  while  the  San  Gabriel, 
San  Dimas,  and  Cucamonga  are  the  main  streams  flowing 
southerly.  The  San  Gabriel  has  by  far  the  largest  water 
flow,  and  during  periods  of  heavy  rain  reaches  the  sea. 
Without  these  streams  the  extensive  area  along  the  base 
of  the  range,  so  well  adapted  to  fruit  growing,  would 
remain  a  brush-covered  desert.  These  streams  are 
directly  due  to  the  presence  of  the  lofty  mountains  which 
we  have  been  describing. 

The  topography  of  the  San  Bernardino  Range  con- 
trasts in  a  most  remarkable  manner  with  that  of  the 
San  Gabriel  Range.  The  latter  is  old  geographically, 
while  the  former  is  comparatively  young.  The  Great 
Rift  line,  which  we  shall  describe  later,  lies  along  the 
northern  base  of  the  San  Gabriel  Range,  crosses  its 
eastern  end  diagonally  and  forms  the  southwestern  base 
of  the  San  Bernardino  Range.  The  position  of  this 
important  fault  and  earthquake  line  shows  clearly  the 
likelihood  of  a  different  age  and  different  history  for  the 
two  ranges. 


Southern  California  119 

The  San  Bernardino  Range  exhibits  rolling,  flat-topped 
ridges,  and  broad  valleys  with  numerous  Sierra-like 
meadows.  The  features  remind  us  much  of  portions  of 
the  Sierra  Nevadas.  In  a  broad  way  the  surface  of  this 
range  has  a  resemblance  to  the  desert  on  the  north,  and 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  an  uplifted  portion  of 
that  region. 

The  San  Bernardino  Range  includes  the  largest  area 
of  elevated  land  in  Southern  California,  and  supports  a 
boreal  flora  and  fauna  over  many  square  miles.  About 
the  upper  slopes  of  San  Gorgonio  Mountain  there  are 
numerous  cold  springs  and  green  meadows.  San  Gor- 
gonio, or  Grayback  as  it  is  often  called,  is  the  highest 
peak  of  Southern  California,  reaching  11,485  feet.  It 
lies  at  the  eastern  end  of  a  lofty  ridge,  the  western  end 
of  which  is  known  as  Mt.  San  Bernardino.  The  latter 
has  an  elevation  of  10,630  feet,  and  although  of  no  par- 
ticular importance  as  viewed  from  San  Gorgonio,  yet  as 
seen  from  the  San  Bernardino  Valley  appears  fully  as 
prominent  as  the  main  peak. 

San  Gorgonio  is  very  interesting  from  the  fact  that 
there  are  clear  indications  of  the  former  existence  of 
several  glaciers  upon  its  northern  slope.  It  thus  marks 
one  of  the  most  southerly  points  of  glaciation  in  the 
United  States. 

The  two  largest  streams  heading  in  the  San  Bernardino 
Range  are  the  Mohave  river  and  the  Santa  Ana  river. 
The  former  flows  northerly  into  the  Mohave  Desert, 
carrying  the  largest  (excepting  Owens  river)  volume 
of  any  stream  entering  the  desert.  It  is  but  little  utilized, 
and  in  the  course  of  fifty  miles  sinks  in  the  sands. 


120  The    Geography   of   California 

The  Santa  Ana  is  the  largest  and  longest  river  of 
Southern  California.  The  summer  flow  of  this  stream 
is  unusually  large,  and  this  fact  is  due  mainly  to  springs 
issuing  from  the  extensive  accumulation  of  glacial  debris 
on  the  northern  slope  of  the  San  Gorgonio-San  Bernar- 
dino crest.  These  gravels  hold  the  waters  from  the 
snow,  which  lasts  nearly  all  summer  in  some  of  the 
protected  recesses,  and  give  it  of!  slowly.  After  leaving 
the  mountains  the  Santa  Ana  traverses  a  valley  region 
of  low  relief,  and  then  cuts  through  the  northern  end  of 
the  Santa  Ana  range,  which  lies  in  its  path  to  the  sea. 

The  San  Gabriel  and  Santa  Ana  rivers,  with  their 
large  volume  of  water,  call  forcibly  to  our  attention  the 
important  part  which  mountains  play  in  the  development 
of  Southern  California.  Water  is  so  urgently  needed, 
in  order  to  increase  the  agricultural  population  of  this 
section,  that  the  greatest  care  and  thought  should  be 
given  to  the  protection  of  the  watersheds  about  the  heads 
of  the  streams.  The  flow  from  many  watersheds  might 
be  much  increased  with  the  proper  attention  to  the  condi- 
tion of  the  surface. 

Two  great  peaks  dominate  this  portion  of  California 
and  stand  guard  over  San  Gorgonio  Pass.  One  is  San 
Gorgonio,  and  the  other  is  San  Jacinto.  They  belong  to 
different  ranges  and  are  separated  not  only  by  the  pass, 
but  by  the  Great  Rift  line.  San  Jacinto  forms  the  north- 
ern point  of  a  range  of  the  same  name,  and  is  the  second 
highest  peak  in  Southern  California,  having  an  elevation 
of  10,805  feet. 

The  San  Jacinto  Range  has  the  appearance  of  being 
very  old,  and  of  having  undergone  little  disturbance  in 


Southern  California  121 

recent  times.  Its  streams,  which  enter  San  Gorgonio 
Pass,  carry  little  debris,  and  erosion  upon  its  slopes 
appears  to  be  slow.  The  very  opposite  appearance  is 
presented  by  the  streams  entering  the  pass  from  the 
San  Bernardino  Range.  The  Great  Rift  which  crosses 
the  southern  slope  of  the  latter  range  appears  to  have 
shaken  the  mountains  severely  and  badly  shattered  them, 
for  immense  quantities  of  debris  are  being  borne  down 
into  the  pass. 

The  San  Jacinto  Mountains  present  a  wonderfully 
rugged  and  precipitous  escarpment  as  viewed  from  the 
Colorado  Desert,  near  Palm  Spring  Station.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  this  originated  long  ago  through  a  slipping  of 
the  earth's  crust,  but  if  there  has  been  any  movement  in 
late  times  it  has  been  one  of  depression,  for  the  base  of 
the  range  appears  to  be  buried  in  the  accumulations  of 
the  Colorado  Desert. 

The  western  edge  of  the  range  is  also  marked  by  a 
fault  line,  but  this  is  one  along  which  very  recent  move- 
ments have  taken  place,  as  is  shown  by  earthquakes.  This 
latter  fault  line,  which  stands  out  so  clearly  in  the  moun- 
tain wall  north  of  the  town  of  San  Jacinto,  extends  south- 
easterly into  the  Colorado  Desert,  and  cuts  off  the  San 
Jacinto  Mountains  from  the  rest  of  the  Peninsula  Range 
with  which  they  are  topographically  continuous.  The 
San  Jacinto  Mountains,  then,  extend  southeasterly,  finally 
terminating  in  a  spur  known  as  the  Santa  Rosa  Range, 
in  the  heart  of  a  barren  and  desolate  region  which  forms 
a  part  of  the  Colorado  Desert. 

The  mountains  lying  south  of  the  San  Bernardino-Los 
Angeles  Valley,  which  we  have  before  referred  to  as  the 


122  The    Geography    of   California 

second  most  important  mountain  axis  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia, extend  nearly  north  and  south,  and  all  seem  more 
or  less  related  to  the  Peninsula  Range  of  Lower  Cali- 
fornia. This  range,  although  much  lower  than  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  the  highest  peaks  outside  of  San  Jacinto  reach- 
ing from  6000  to  7000  feet,  very  much  resembles  the 
latter  in  its  general  structure.  There  is  the  long  western 
slope  of  San  Diego  county  and  the  abrupt  eastern  slope 
toward  the  desert.  The  latter  slope  is  marked  by  fault 
lines,  so  that  the  range  is  a  great  tilted  block  which  has 
not  been  elevated  as  much  as  the  Sierra  Nevada.  Plateau- 
like remnants  of  an  old  surface  are  very  numerous  upon 
the  summit  and  western  slope  of  the  range.  The  Cahuilla 
Indian  Reservation,  a  few  miles  south  of  the  town  of  San 
Jacinto,  is  located  upon  a  remarkable  plateau  having  an 
elevation  of  4000  feet.  About  the  region  of  the  mining 
town  of  Julian  and  the  Cuyamaca  Mountain,  as  well  as 
on  the  summit  of  the  Laguna  Mountains  and  the  Campo 
region  near  the  Mexican  line,  are  extensive  plateau-like 
areas  which  formed  part  of  an  old  surface  before  the 
recent  moderate  elevation  of  the  Peninsula  Range. 

The  westward  sloping  ridges  of  these  mountains  form 
a  remarkably  even  sky-line  when  seen  in  profile,  and  back 
of  the  city  of  San  Diego  is  a  remnant  of  an  ancient  aurif- 
erous gravel  channel.  This  old  channel  bears  the  same 
relation  to  the  present  canon  of  the  San  Diego  river  as 
the  old  channels  in  Northern  California  do  to  the  Ameri- 
can and  Feather  rivers. 

The  slope  from  the  plateau  occupied  by  the  Cahuilla 
Indian  Reservation  was  once  continuous  westward  to  the 
ocean.    The  whole  region  had  a  low  relief,  for  there  were 


Southern  California  123 

no  canons,  and  only  gently  rolling  granite  hills  broke  the 
surface. 

Then  there  came  a  time .  of  slipping  of  the  earth's 
crust  along  a  line  of  fracture,  and  the  Santa  Ana  Moun- 
tain block  began  to  appear.  A  sharp  escarpment  formed 
along  the  eastern  face  of  this  block,  and  in  the  depression 
at  its  base  we  have  the  Temecula-Elsinore  Valley  of  the 
present  day.  The  growth  of  the  mountain  block  was 
slow,  so  that  Temecula  creek  maintained  its  course,  and 
now  flows  from  the  broad  valley  of  the  same  name  by 
means  of  a  canon  which  it  has  cut  through  the  moun- 
tains, to  the  sea.  The  road  from  Temecula  to  Fallbrook 
passes  across  the  southern  end  of  this  uplifted  block 
through  a  little  valley  which  has  been  beheaded. 

At  Lake  Elsinore  the  displacement  was  greater  still, 
and  the  San  Jacinto  river,  which  at  one  time  must  have 
flowed  westerly  to  the  sea,  formed  a  lake  under  the 
escarpment  and  was  then  deflected  northerly,  finally  to 
empty  its  waters  into  the  Santa  Ana  river.  The  climate 
is  so  dry  now  that  rarely  is  there  any  overflow  from 
the  lake  down  the  old  course  of  the  river. 

This  mountain  wall,  shutting  in  the  Temecula-Elsinore 
Valley  on  the  west,  is  one  of  the  most  striking  features 
which  we  have  illustrating  the  formation  of  mountains 
through  slipping  of  the  earth's  crust.  Climbing  this  wall 
from  Temecula  we  come  out  upon  a  rolling  plateau  with 
broad  valleys  and  low  granite  knobs,  covered  in  places 
by  the  remnants  of  an  ancient  lava  flow.  The  region  is 
known  as  the  Santa  Rosa  plateau,  and  one  of  the  most 
symmetrical  lava  remnants,  forming  a  flat-topped  hill, 
goes  by  the  name  of  Mesa  Redonda. 


124  The    Geography   of   California 

As  we  follow  the  Santa  Ana  Mountains  northward  we 
find  that  beyond  the  point  where  the  Santa  Ana  river 
crosses  it  the  fault  disappears  and  a  fold  of  the  earth 
giving  rise  to  the  Puente  Hills  takes  its  place.  To  the 
southeast  we  trace  the  fault,  or  slip,  as  we  may  call  it, 
along  the  base  of  Palomar,  or  Smiths  Mountain,  border- 
ing the  valley  of  the  upper  San  Luis  Rey  river.  Smiths 
Mountain,  then,  has  been  raised  to  its  present  height 
by  movements  along  this  rift,  only  here  the  uplift  was 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  break,  for  the  bold  front  of 
the  mountain  faces  westerly,  while  farther  north  the 
escarpment  faces  east. 

Numerous  streams,  the  largest  of  which  are  the  San 
Diego  and  San  Luis  Rey  rivers,  flow  westerly  to  the  sea 
across  San  Diego  county.  Their  courses  for  the  most 
part  lie  in  valleys,  although  here  and  there  narrowed  by 
resistant  rocks.  Since  their  channels  were  first  eroded 
the  land  has  sunken  several  hundred  feet,  and  now  their 
lower  courses  are  over  silted-up  channels.  In  the  sum- 
mer they  are  nearly  dry,  but  after  ordinary  winter  rains 
carry  a  considerable  volume  of  water. 

The  Verdugo  Mountains,  forming  a  long  narrow,  but 
precipitous  range,  lie  between  the  San  Fernando  Valley 
upon  the  southwest  and  a  valley  known  as  La  Canada, 
which  separates  them  from  the  San  Gabriel  Range  on  the 
northeast.  Most  peculiar  and  interesting  drainage  fea- 
tures are  exhibited  by  the  streams  which  come  down  to 
La  Canada  from  the  San  Gabriel  Mountains,  for  instead 
of  going  around  the  Verdugo  Mountains,  as  the  topog- 
raphy would  lead  one  to  expect,  they  flow  directly  across 
it.    This  seems  to  indicate  that  either  the  Verdugo  Moun- 


Southern  California  125 

tains  have  been  raised  across  the  courses  of  pre-existing 
streams  without  displacing  them,  or  that  the  San  Gabriel 
Range  has  sunken.  There  is  clearly  a  line  of  fracture  and 
displacement  running  through  the  Canada  Valley  between 
the  two  ranges. 

Lakes. — Southern  California,  as  we  might  suppose, 
has  few  natural  lakes.  Elsinore  is  the  largest,  and 
belongs  to  a  type  of  lake  frequently  occurring  at  the  foot 
of  fault  escarpment  throughout  the  mountains  of  the 
West.  At  present  it  rarely  overflows  its  basin,  and  is 
quite  alkaline. 

Lake  Elizabeth,  lying  on  the  southern  edge  of  Antelope 
Valley,  in  the  Mohave  Desert,  is  due  to  the  blocking  of 
a  small  stream  which  is  crossed  by  the  Great  Rift.  In 
the  San  Bernardino  Mountains  are  several  small  lakes 
occupying  basins  which  have  been  uplifted  from  the  level 
of  the  Mohave  Desert  and  have  not  yet  been  drained. 
On  San  Gorgonio  are  two  small  glacial  lakes.  In  the 
head  of  the  middle  fork  of  the  San  Gabriel  river  is  a 
small  lake  lying  behind  a  great  ridge  of  rock  which  has 
slid  from  the  crest  of  the  range  as  the  result  of  some 
earthquake  disturbance.  At  the  mouths  of  some  of  the 
streams,  and  separated  from  the  ocean  by  barrier  beaches, 
are  lagoons.  These  have  been  formed  as  a  result  of  the 
last  submergence  of  the  coast  drowning  the  adjacent  low- 
lands. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  shore  features  found 
along  the  whole  coast  of  California  is  the  Mesa  of  San 
Diego  county.  In  its  main  features  it  represents  an 
ancient  sea  floor  formed  along  the  base  of  the  mountains 
when  the  land  stood  lower  than  at  present.     The  mesa 


126  The    Geography   of   California 

lies  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea,  and  terminates 
at  the  latter  in  cliffs.  South  of  Oceanside  lines  of  ancient 
dunes  mark  its  surface.  During  a  period  of  elevation 
the  streams  cut  steep-walled  valleys  or  canons  across  it. 
With  the  last  sinking  of  the  land  the  sea  flooded  the 
lower  portion  of  these  valleys.  Then  the  waves  threw 
up  barrier  beaches,  transforming  the  bays  into  lagoons, 
and  since  then  they  have  been  largely  silted  up  by  flood 
waters. 

Coast  and  Islands. — The  character  and  direction  of 
the  shore  line  at  any  given  point  is  dependent  upon  the 
nature  of  the  land  lying  back  of  it.  Where  mountains 
approach  the  shore  the  coast  is  rocky  and  bold,  and 
headlands  extend  out  into  the  sea.  This  is  illustrated  at 
Pt.  Arguello  and  Pt.  Fermin.  Where  there  are  lowlands 
lying  back  there  are  long,  gently  incurving  sandy  beaches, 
as  are  shown  south  of  Santa  Monica,  for  many  miles  both 
northwest  and  southeast  of  Long  Beach,  and  at  Cor- 
onado. 

The  present  shore  is  a  mere  accident,  so  to  speak.  It 
is  not  permanent,  but  has  moved  back  and  forth  with 
the  rising  and  sinking  of  the  land.  Just  how  great  these 
movements  have  been  we  do  not  know,  but  their  vertical 
range  is  probably  3000  feet. 

All  the  lowland  region  of  Southern  California  was  at 
one  time  the  floor  of  the  sea,  and  at  another  time  the 
land  reached  far  to  the  westward  of  the  present  boundary, 
including  the  Santa  Barbara  and  probably  other  islands. 
We  have  come  upon  the  scene  while  the  land  stands  half 
way  between  these  extremes,  so  that  the  surface  is  divided 
between  mountains  and  broad  lowland  valleys.    The  fer- 


Southern  California  127 

tile  plain  upon  which  Santa  Barbara  stands  is  part  of  a 
much  greater  plain  stretching  away  under  the  sea  to  the 
islands.  The  plain  of  Los  Angeles  is  only  a  part  of  a 
much  larger  one,  the  remainder  of  which  is  submerged.- 

Between  Santa  Barbara  and  Ventura  the  mountains 
which  form  the  great  barrier  between  Central  and  South- 
ern California  come  directly  down  to  the  shore,  leaving 
room  for  a  road  only  at  low  tide.  The  coast  has  recently 
risen  three-fourths  feet  south  of  Los  Angeles.  This  has 
given  opportunity  for  the  Santa  Fe  Railroad  to  build  a 
number  of  miles  of  track  on  the  sand  which  has  accumu- 
lated at  the  base  of  the  old  sea  cliffs  south  of  San  Juan 
Capistrano.  San  Diego  is  thus  more  easily  reached  than 
it  otherwise  would  be.  The  condition  of  the  shore  is  then 
an  important  economic  factor  in  communication  between 
different  regions. 

The  relative  position  of  the  mountains  and  the  charac- 
ter of  the  valleys  taken  in  connection  with  the  present 
level  of  the  land,  have  given  us  a  fairly  even  coast  line 
with  few  good  harbors.  Santa  Barbara  roadstead  is 
protected  largely  by  the  Channel  Islands.  San  Pedro, 
originally  a  small  shallow  harbor,  is  being  adapted  to  the 
use  of  large  vessels  by  the  building  of  a  costly  Govern- 
ment breakwater. 

San  Diego  possesses,  next  to  San  Francisco,  the  best 
natural  harbor  on  the  coast  of  California.  It  is  due  to  the 
same  cause  as  the  others,  that  is,  the  recent  sinking  of 
the  land  several  hundred  feet.  San  Diego  Bay  is  pro- 
tected both  by  Pt.  Loma,  a  long,  rocky  headland,  and  a 
long  barrier  beach  connecting  with  islands  behind  the 
headland. 


128  The    Geography   of    California 

The  ocean  is  at  most  times  so  quiet  that  at  many  points, 
such  as  Ventura,  Santa  Monica,  Long  Beach  and  Ocean- 
side,  long  piers  have  been  built  for  the  transfer  of  freight 
and  passengers. 

The  Islands. — All  the  islands  except  the  Farallones 
lie  off  the  coast  of  Southern  California.  They  are  tops 
of  mountains  which  rise  from  a  sunken  portion  of  the 
continent  to  which  reference  has  already  been  made. 
This  submerged  plateau  widens  and  sinks  as  we  follow 
it  southward  past  the  Santa  Barbara  Islands  until  off 
San  Diego  soundings  show  that  its  margin  is  fully  150 
miles  out  beyond  the  present  shore.  In  addition  to  the 
mountains  on  this  plateau  which  rise  above  the  water 
there  are  several  "banks"  marking  the  places  of  those 
which  are  completely  submerged. 

Much,  and  probably  all,  of  this  plateau  has  at  some 
time  been  dry  land.  It  is  definitely  known  that  the  land 
has  stood  at  least  1000  to  1500  feet  above  the  present 
level,  for  the  Santa  Barbara  Islands  were  a  part  of  the 
mainland  in  quite  recent  times.  On  Santa  Rosa  Island 
there  are  bones  of  the  mastodon,  extinct  horse,  and  other 
mammals.  These  must  have  reached  that  point  by  means 
of  some  land  connection.  There  are  other  evidences  of 
submergence  in  the  shape  of  canon-like  depressions  which 
extend  from  the  land  down  onto  or  across  the  submerged 
plateau.  In  several  instances  these  reach  the  deep  sea 
at  a  depth  of  2000  to  3000  feet,  and  are  believed  to  have 
been  made  by  running  water. 

That  the  coast  of  Southern  California  has  been  sub- 
merged at  least  1400  feet  below  the  present  level  is  shown 
by  the  wave-cut  terraces  and  ancient  sea  cliffs  extending 


Southern  California  129 

up  to  that  height  upon  San  Clemente  Island,  and  also 
upon  the  seaward  face  of  San  Pedro  Hill.  The  last 
movement  of  any  consequence,  except  the  slight  upward 
one  referred  to,  was  a  sinking  of  perhaps  300  feet,  and 
it  is  this  which  has  given  us  our  present  harbors. 

The  downward  movement  drowned  the  mouths  of  the 
streams  and  formed  bays  at  their  mouths.  The  larger 
streams,  carrying  much  silt,  have  filled  these  up.  Many 
small  ones  still  exist,  in  the  form  of  lagoons,  as  is  par- 
ticularly well  shown  along  the  coast  of  San  Diego  county. 

The  island  of  Santa  Catalina  is  important  as  a  summer 
resort,  Avalon  being  situated  upon  a  bay  formed  by  the 
last  sinking  of  the  land.  The  other  islands  are  chiefly 
used  as  stock  ranges.  The  islands,  if  we  can  judge  from 
San  Nicholas,  once  supported  a  large  Indian  population. 
The  latter  is  now  utterly  barren,  and  is  being  covered 
with  drifting  sand  owing  to  overstocking  with  sheep. 
Outside  of  the  channel  islands  there  is  a  most  remarkable 
submerged  escarpment  shown  by  soundings.  The  slope 
is  very  precipitous  to  the  depths  of  the  Pacific,  and  prob- 
ably represents  a  great  fault  or  earthquake  slip. 

Earthquake  Lines. — The  earthquake  rift  of  the 
Coast  Ranges,  or  San  Andreas  fault,  as  it  has  been 
termed  by  the  Earthquake  Commission,  which  opened  so 
disastrously  in  1906,  has  a  much  greater  length  than  was 
at  that  time  supposed.  It  extends  through  the  whole 
length  of  the  Coast  Ranges,  across  Southern  California 
and  into  the  Colorado  Desert. 

We  have  already  followed  it  through  the  Coast  Ranges 
to  the  Carisa  Plain.  From  there  it  continues  on  south- 
easterly through  the  San  Emegdio  Mountains,  the  name 


130  The    Geography   of    California 

meaning  patron  saint  of  earthquakes,  across  Tejon  Pass 
and  the  southern  slope  of  Antelope  Valley.  Movements 
have  occurred  along  this  line  for  so  long  a  time  that 
valleys  and  canons  have  had  time  to  develop.  The  crush- 
ing of  the  rocks  near  the  fracture  line  has  made  erosion 
more  rapid,  and  hence  the  marked  effect  which  it  has 
produced  upon  the  topography.  The  slipping  of  the 
walls  have  also  resulted  in  important  escarpments. 

West  of  the  San  Emegdio  Mountains  San  Juan  Canon 
has  been  eroded  2000  feet  deep  on  the  line  of  the  rift. 
San  Emegdio  creek  rises  in  an  important  longitudinal 
upland  valley  eroded  through  the  heart  of  the  San  Emeg- 
dio Mountains,  and  this  is  also  due  to  movements  of  the 
rift.  Along  the  northern  side  of  Cuddy  Valley  there  is 
an  escarpment  50  to  200  feet  high  which  forms  a  straight 
line  for  some  miles.  The  sunken  side  of  the  valley  is 
marked  by  meadows. 

Crossing  the  Tejon  Pass  the  rift  continues  in  an  almost 
perfectly  straight  line  along  the  southern  side  of  Ante- 
lope Valley  and  the  Mohave  Desert.  The  old  stage  road 
from  Bakersfield  to  Los  Angeles  follows  it  for  some  miles 
east  of  Tejon  Pass.  The  earthquake  of  1857,  known  as 
the  Tejon  earthquake,  shook  this  road  all  to  pieces,  and 
the  effects  are  still  plainly  visible. 

Long  narrow  valleys  mark  the  rift  for  many  miles.  It 
has  not  only  affected  greatly  the  topography  of  the  coun- 
try, but  it  has  habitable  valleys  with  springs  in  an  other- 
wise very  dry  region,  and  has  determined  the  position  of 
trails  and  roads  which  follow  it  almost  continuously. 

The  rift  follows  a  straight  course  along  the  mountain 
slopes  bounding  the  Mohave  Desert  on  the  south  for  fully 


Southern  California  131 

100  miles.  Then,  climbing  the  northern  spurs  of  the 
San  Gabriel  Range,  it  continues  over  a  divide  7000  feet 
high  and  descends  toward  the  lower  end  of  Cajon  Pass. 
Sink  holes,  escarpments,  springs  and  cienegas  enable  us 
to  trace  it  easily  almost  the  whole  distance. 

The  rift  traverses  the  mesa  which  lies  between  the  base 
of  the  San  Bernardino  Range  and  the  valley,  and  breaks 
it  into  two  parts,  showing  in  places  long  bluffs  and  ridges 
forty  to  fifty  feet  high.  Above  the  rift  there  is  an 
abundance  of  water  at  shallow  depths;  below  it  can 
scarcely  be  found.  This  is  because  of  the  impervious 
layer  of  clay  in  the  fissure  which  forces  toward  the  sur- 
face the  underground  waters  seeping  from  the  mountains. 

Passing  up  Potato  Canon  to  the  east  of  Riverside  the 
rift  passes  over  a  spur  of  the  range  and  then  down 
toward  the  San  Gorgonio  Pass.  It  then  turns  more  east- 
erly along  the  base  of  the  range,  and  after  crossing  the 
Whitewater  River  disappears  in  the  sands  of  the  Coa- 
chella  Desert.  The  whole  of  that  portion  of  the  rift 
traversing  Southern  California  opened  in  the  Tejon 
earthquake  of  1857. 

Another  earthquake  line  of  importance  has  already 
been  mentioned.  This  has  produced  the  steep  mountain 
wall  lying  north  of  the  town  of  San  Jacinto.  This  line 
of  displacement  can  be  traced  southeasterly  along  the 
southern  slope  of  the  San  Jacinto  Mountains  and  into 
the  Borego  Desert,  where  it  forms  a  wonderfully  regular 
escarpment.  A  severe  disturbance  along  this  fissure  in 
1897  severely  damaged  the  town  of  San  Jacinto  and 
killed  several  Indians. 


132  The    Geography   of    California 

The  Temecula-Elsinore  earthquake  line  appears  to  have 
ceased  making  any  disturbance,  for  there  are  no  indica- 
tions of  recent  movements.  The  eastern  slope  of  the 
Peninsula  Range  shows  in  many  places  the  effects  of 
great  displacement.  For  hundreds  of  miles,  extending 
far  into  Lower  California,  there  is  an  abrupt  wall  very 
similar  to  that  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The  frequent 
earthquakes,  hot  springs  and  mud  volcanoes  of  the  Colo- 
rado Desert  indicate  that  movements  of  the  sunken  desert 
block  are  still  taking  place. 

Geographic  History. — Something  of  the  wonderfully 
checkered  shore-line  history  of  California  has  already 
been  given.  Fully  as  remarkable  events  have  taken  place 
in  the  history  of  the  land,  as  we  learn  from  a  study  of  the 
existing  geographic  features. 

The  climate  and  geography  have  both  been  changing 
throughout  the  long  periods  of  the  past.  Disturbances 
in  the  earth's  crust  would  slowly  give  rise  to  mountains. 
The  forces  of  decay,  together  with  the  rains  and  running 
streams,  would  attack  these  mountains  and  in  the  course  of 
time  wear  them  entirely  away.  Mountain-making  forces  do 
not  act  with  the  same  energy  in  all  places  and  at  all  times, 
while  in  some  places  the  mountains  wore  away  more 
rapidly  than  in  others.  It  thus  came  about  that  in  dif- 
ferent regions  we  find  mountains  exhibiting  different 
stages  of  development.  In  the  Mohave  Desert  and  about 
Perris,  Riverside  county,  there  are  mountains  almost 
worn  down,  while  the  San  Gabriel  and  San  Bernardino 
exhibit  steep,  rugged  slopes  of  newer  mountains.  As 
a  result  of  the  changing  land  we  have  an  ever-changing 
climate,  fauna  and  flora. 


Southern  California  133 

A  careful  study  of  the  features  of  Southern  California 
leads  us  to  believe  that  at  one  time  there  were  no  lofty 
barrier  mountains  between  the  Mohave  and  Colorado 
deserts  and  the  sea.  The  drainage  from  these  districts 
reached  the  sea  over  a  surface  of  low  relief.  The  San 
Gabriel,  San  Bernardino  and  Peninsula  ranges  had  not 
been  born.  The  summits  of  the  sharp  ridges  of  the 
San  Gabriel  Range,  which  form  so  even  a  sky  line, 
appear  to  arch  upward  gently  from  the  Mohave  Desert 
with  its  almost  worn-down  mountains.  The  San  Ber- 
nardino Range  is  without  question  an  uplifted  region 
which  at  one  time  was  topographically  a  part  of  the 
present  desert.  The  Peninsula  Range  was  once  much 
lower  and  exhibited  no  eastern  escarpment,  and  the 
ancient  uplifted  river  bed,  with  its  gold  deposits,  proba- 
bly had  its  head  far  to  the  east  of  the  present  crest  and 
over  the  sunken  Colorado  Basin. 

The  geographic  features  of  these  ancient  times  of 
which  we  have  spoken  were  perhaps  first  modified  in 
the  appearance  of  the  San  Gabriel  Mountain  block.  A 
fault  or  slipping  of  the  earth  along  its  southern  side 
began  to  raise  an  escarpment  which  as  it  grew  more 
lofty  was  more  and  more  attacked  by  the  forces  of  decay 
and  erosion  until  the  present  deep  canons  came  into 
existence,  and  the  old  upland  was  reduced  to  sharp- 
edged  ridges.  Such  is  the  story  of  the  still  precipitous 
front  of  the  San  Gabriel  Range,  which  adds  so  much  to 
the  scenic  features  of  this  region. 

At  a  much  later  period  movements  along  the  Great 
Rift,  of  which  we  have  spoken,  began  to  uplift  the  San 
Bernardino  Mountain  block,  but  the  ancient  surface  of 


134  The    Geography    of    California 

this  area  has  not  yet  been  greatly  modified,  although 
canons  have  been  eroded  about  its  margins,  and  these 
will  in  time  reduce  it  to  the  same  condition  as  the  San 
Gabriel.  Both  ranges  will,  at  some  time  in  the  distant 
future,  if  other  movements  do  not  interfere,  take  on 
much  of  the  appearance  of  the  rolling,  hilly  country 
about  Riverside  and  Perris. 

The  old  features  of  the  last-mentioned  district  are 
relics  of  the  most  ancient  geography  which  we  can  dis- 
tinguish in  California.  The  time  required  for  lofty 
mountains  to  be  worn  down  to  a  surface  almost  plain- 
like in  character,  such  as  that  southwest  of  Perris,  is 
greater  than  we  can  conceive  of.  It  is  this  contrast 
between  very  ancient  and  comparatively  new  geographic 
forms  which  we  find  so  well  shown  in  the  area  which  we 
have  been  discussing  that  makes  its  study  so  interesting. 
Here  we  also  see  in  remarkable  distinctness  the  dependence 
of  the  climate  and  productions,  as  well  as  man's  indus- 
tries, upon  the  physical  features  of  the  earth. 

Geographic  Barriers. — With  all  the  modern  conven- 
iences for  travel  we  are  apt  to  forget  the  difficulties 
which  the  early  explorers  encountered  in  trying  to  get 
into  California.  One  expedition  ascended  the  Colorado 
river,  but  did  not  get  far  away  from  it  because  of  the 
inhospitable  character  of  the  country.  A  long  and  weary 
route  led  overland  from  the  Missions  of  Lower  California 
to  San  Diego,  and  the  sea  with  all  of  its  head  winds 
offered  the  only  other  means  of  access. 

Except  for  the  one  route  up  the  coast,  where  the 
mountains  crowd  the  road  to  the  edge  of  the  sea,  moun- 
tain  ranges   and   deserts   completely   shut   off  Southern 


Southern  California  135 

from  Central  and  Northern  California.  When  the  inte- 
rior became  better  known  another  route  by  Elizabeth 
Lake,  Tejon  Pass  and  canon  came  into  use,  but  much 
of  the  way  was  desert,  and  there  were  three  mountain 
passes  to  cross,  namely,  San  Fernando,  Francisquita, 
and  Tejon.  The  main  route,  however,  continued  to  be 
thai  along  the  coast  known  as  the  Camino  Real.  The 
latter  lay  mostly  through  well-watered  valleys,  and  with 
only  two  passes  of  any  consequence,  Gaviota  across  the 
western  end  of  the  Santa  Ynez  Range,  and  Cuesta  Pass 
leading  from  San  Luis  Obispo  across  the  Santa  Lucia 
Range. 

The  deserts  offered  more  effective  barriers  to  the  early 
emigrants  from  the  East  than  did  the  mountains.  It 
was  practically  impossible  to  cross  the  Colorado  and 
Mohave  deserts  in  the  heat  of  summer,  but  there  were 
several  passes  leading  through  the  mountains  into  South- 
ern California  which  could  be  used  at  all  seasons. 

Mountain  passes  have  had  an  important  influence  upon 
the  development  of  Southern  California.  This  fact  is 
illustrated  in  the  relatively  rapid  growth  of  Los  Angeles 
as  compared  with  San  Diego.  The  former  is  situated 
directly  at  the  meeting  point  of  valleys  which  lead  to 
mountain  passes  opening  east  and  north,  while  San  Diego, 
having  the  great  advantage  of  being  located  upon  the 
second  best  harbor  upon  the  coast  of  California,  is  never- 
theless, so  hemmed  in  by  mountains  that  it  has  been 
difficult  for  railroads  to  reach  it.  Even  the  route  along 
the  coast,  occupied  by  the  Santa  Fe,  was  not  an  easy  one 
to  follow.     The  Peninsula  Range  offers  no  low  passes, 


136  The    Geography   of   California 

but  it  is  now  proposed  to  build  a  railroad  across  it,  and 
thus  go  direct  from  San  Diego  to  Yuma. 

San  Gorgonio  is  the  easiest  and  lowest  pass  leading  into 
Southern  California.  It  has  an  elevation  of  only  2600 
feet,  and  is  really  a  broad  valley  connecting  San  Bernar- 
dino Valley  with  the  Colorado  Desert,  which  has  been 
arched  upward  in  the  middle  during  mountain-making 
movements.    It  is  used  by  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad. 

Cajon  Pass  is  higher  and  steeper  than  San  Gorgonio 
Pass.  It  lies  in  the  break  between  the  San  Bernardino 
Range  and  the  San  Gabriel,  and  opens  out  on  the  north 
into  the  Mohave  Desert.  The  pass  is  used  by  both  the 
Santa  Fe  and  Salt  Lake  railroads.  In  early  days  it  was 
made  use  of  by  the  Mormon  trail,  which  led  from  Utah 
across  Southern  Nevada  to  the  San  Bernardino  Valley, 
where  these  people  had  made  a  settlement. 

The  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  in  going  from  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley  to  Southern  California  crosses  three 
mountain  passes,  namely,  Tehachapi,  leading  to  the 
Mohave  Desert ;  Soledad,  between  the  desert  and  the  head 
of  the  Santa  Clara  River,  and  San  Fernando,  between  the 
latter  basin  and  the  San  Fernando  Valley. 

The  emigration  into  California  by  the  southern  routes 
was  comparatively  small  in  the  early  days.  This  was 
partly  because  the  deserts  of  the  Southwest  were  more 
dangerous  to  cross,  and  partly  because  the  mines  were 
reached  more  directly  by  the  northern  route.  Two  trails 
were  used  to  reach  Southern  California,  one  across  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona,  entering  California  at  Yuma.  The 
other,  known  as  the  Old  Mormon  trail,  has  already  been 
mentioned.     From  Yuma  one  route  led  tn  San  Diego, 


Southern  California  137 

the  other  to  Los  Angeles.  Winter  parties  sometimes 
made  use  of  these  routes,  and  it  was  in  the  effort  to  find 
a  new  cut-off  to  the  north  of  the  Mormon  trail  that  the 
Death  Valley  party  had  its  terrible  experience. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Southern  California  has 
already  been  discussed  in  a  general  way.  Although  lying 
in  the  belt  of  prevailing  westerly  winds,  fewer  storms 
reach  this  southern  coast,  and  the  climate  is  drier  than 
farther  north.  The  precipitation  varies  greatly  in  differ- 
ent parts.  It  averages  10  inches  at  San  Diego.  At  Los 
Angeles  it  is  about  15,  while  upon  the  mountains  it  is 
from  40  to  50  inches.  We  would  ordinarily  expect  the 
greatest  rainfall  to  occur  along  the  coast,  but  owing  to 
the  cooler  air  of  the  mountains,  and  the  disturbance  which 
they  create  in  the  atmospheric  currents  the  precipitation 
upon  their  slopes  is  very  much  greater.  The  influence 
of  the  mountains  is,  then,  a  very  beneficent  one,  for  if  it 
were  not  for  them  the  rainfall  would  be  so  small  that 
there  would  be  no  streams  of  any  consequence,  there 
would  be  no  snow  and  no  summer  supply  for  irrigation. 

The  lack  of  rainfall  from  storms  accompanying  the 
easterly  moving  air  currents  is  partly  compensated  for 
by  the  existence  of  a  summer  storm  area  over  the  Gulf 
of  Lower  California.  Storms  from  this  center  sometimes 
reach  into  Southern  and  Eastern  California,  producing 
thunderstorms  and  cloudbursts  in  the  late  spring  and 
summer  which  may  be  very  severe.  In  the  summer  of 
1909  as  much  rain  fell  in  a  single  storm  in  the  Colorado 
Desert  as  ordinarily  fell  in  a  whole  year. 

While  the  summer  fogs  are  much  colder  and  more 
dense  along  the  coast,  yet  owing  to  the  fact  that  there 


138  The    Geography    of    California 

are  no  intervening  mountain  ranges  their  influence  is 
felt  far  inland.  "High  fog"  occurs  very  frequently  in 
the  mornings  in  summer,  even  in  the  San  Bernardino 
Valley.  Thus  it  happens  that  many  fruits,  including 
oranges,  ripen  later  in  Southern  California  than  in  the 
Great  Valley,  hundreds  of  miles  farther  north. 

A  disagreeable  wind  from  the  north  occurs  in  the 
spring  and  fall,  and  often  does  considerable  damage. 
This  is  known  as  the  Santa  Ana,  and  while  it  lasts  the 
sky  is  obscured  by  clouds  of  dust.  It  is  a  high-pressure 
or  anti-cyclone  wind  due  to  the  existence  of  such  an  area 
over  Southern  Nevada.  Its  warm  dry  character  is  not 
wholly  due  to  its  passage  over  the  deserts,  as  is  commonly 
supposed,  but  more  to  the  fact  that  it  is  a  descending  air 
current,  and  such  currents  are  drier  and  often  warmer 
than  other  winds. 

Natural  Resources. — California  is  made  up  of  so 
many  and  diverse  parts  that  we  can  describe  its  resources 
most  intelligibly  by  taking  each  part  by  itself.  Southern 
California  is  noted  particularly  for  its  oranges,  and 
undoubtedly  the  growing  of  citrus  fruits  will  always  be 
the  leading  occupation.  The  dividing  up  of  the  land  into 
small  tracts,  each  of  which  is  cultivated  with  care,  will 
keep  the  larger  part  of  the  population  in  the  country  and 
small  towns,  and  lead  to  the  best  type  of  our  modern 
civilization. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  area  that  is  sufficiently  high 
to  receive  heavy  rains  is  comparatively  limited,  the  timber 
resources  of  Southern  California  are  not  extensive. 
Important  lumbering  operations  have  been  carried  on  in 
the  San  Bernardino  Range  for  some  years,  but  careful 


Southern  California  139 

measurements  of  the  streams  which  flow  from  the  defor- 
ested areas  indicate  clearly  that  the  effect  upon  the  sum- 
mer supply  will  be  disastrous  if  this  work  is  not  soon 
stopped.  It  is  far  more  important  that  Southern  Cali- 
fornia be  not  stripped  of  her  forest  cover,  and  thus  crip- 
ple the  water  supply  which  goes  to  support  thousands  of 
people,  than  that  a  few  lumber  companies  should  grow 
rich. 

The  coniferous  forest  is  practically  confined  to  the 
mountain  slopes  above  5000  feet,  although  there  is  one 
species,  the  big-coned  spruce,  which  can  thrive  upon 
drier  slopes,  and  grows  much  lower.  Below  the  conifer- 
ous forests,  particularly  where  the  slopes  are  steep,  the 
surface  is  covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  chaparral, 
consisting  of  scrub  oak,  California  lilac,  chamisal,  man- 
zanita,  etc.  The  more  moist  valleys  are  dotted  with  oaks, 
as  are  the  valleys  of  the  Coast  Ranges.  Many  of  the 
more  arid  valleys  and  slopes  support  a  growth  of  sage- 
brush and  other  semi-arid  shrubs. 

If  we  except  petroleum,  the  mineral  resources  of  South- 
ern California  are  comparatively  limited.  Gold  occurs 
from  the  San  Emegdio  Mountains  southward  in  those 
parts  of  the  mountains  made  up  of  the  ancient  crystalline 
rocks.  Antimony  was  formerly  mined  in  the  San  Emeg- 
dio Mountains,  and  a  tin  mine  was  at  one  time  in  opera- 
tion in  the  mountains  east  of  South  Riverside.  At  Colton 
there  are  important  marble  deposits  used  in  making  lime. 

In  San  Diego  and  Riverside  counties  occur  valuable 
deposits  of  tourmaline,  beryl  and  kunzite,  which  are  next 
to  diamonds,  perhaps  the  most  valuable  of  gems. 


140  The    Geography    of    California 

It  is  interesting  to  note,  in  connection  with  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  minerals  of  Southern  California,  that  here 
was  made  the  first  discovery  of  gold.  In  San  Francis- 
quita  Canon,  fifty  miles  northwest  of  Los  Angeles,  gold 
was  discovered  in  placers  in  the  year  1838,  and  these  were 
worked  with  profit  for  some  years.  The  priests,  however, 
discouraged  mining  by  the  Indians,  fearing  it  would  take 
them  from  the  missions.  In  1843  a  Mexican  officer 
attempted  to  arouse  his  government  to  the  possible  impor- 
tance of  gold  in  California. 

Deposits  of  petroleum  occur  over  a  wide  area  in  Santa 
Barbara,  Ventura,  and  Los  Angeles  counties.  The  oil  is 
usually  obtained  by  drilling,  but  in  portions  of  the  Ven- 
tura field  it  is  obtained  from  tunnels  run  into-the  sides  of 
a  mountain.  In  the  field  southwest  of  Los  Angeles  is  the 
deepest  well  ever  drilled.  It  extends  more  than  a  mile 
down  into  the  earth. 

A  most  interesting  and  remarkable  collection  of  fossils 
has  been  obtained  from  the  La  Brea  tar  springs,  a  few 
miles  southwest  of  Los  Angeles.  Here  is  an  almost  com- 
plete representation  of  the  animals  which  inhabited  this 
region  during  the  last  few  thousand  years.  Some  came 
to  drink  the  water  and  fell  into  the  tar ;  others,  such  as  the 
carniverous  animals,  got  in  while  attempting  to  feed  upon 
other  animals  which  had  been  caught.  Nearly  all  the 
animals  and  birds  whose  skeletons  have  been  found  are 
now  extinct. 

Water  Supply. — In  no  other  part  of  California  is  the 
question  of  an  adequate  water  supply  so  important  as  in 
the  region  which  we  are  discussing.  Here  are  many 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres  of  land  suited  to  the 


Southern  California  141 

growth  of  a  great  variety  of  sub-tropical  fruits,  but 
without  water  for  irrigation  little  of  this  great  region 
could  support  more  than  a  sparse  population. 

We  have  already  seen  that  it  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
lofty  mountains  lying  back  of  the  lowlands  that  there  is 
any  water  for  irrigation.  The  water  now  used  is  obtained 
partly  from  the  gravels  along  the  base  of  the  mountains, 
by  means  of  wells  and  pumping  plants,  partly  from  the 
natural  flow  of  the  streams,  and  partly  from  artificial 
reservoirs  constructed  in  the  mountains.  Bear  Valley 
reservoir,  in  the  San  Bernardino  Range,  is  the  most 
important  of  the  latter  sources. 

The  limit  of  the  agricultural  possibilities  of  Southern 
California  with  the  water  now  at  hand  has  nearly  been 
reached.  There  are  various  ways  by  which  the  supply  can 
be  enlarged.  Los  Angeles  and  the  region  about  will  soon 
have  a  greatly  augmented  water  supply  in  the  great 
Owens  river  canal.  Large  quantities  of  water  run  away 
to  the  sea  during  the  winter  floods,  and  this  should  all 
be  conserved  for  summer  use  through  the  construction 
of  reservoirs. 

Another  factor  which  will  affect  the  water  supply,  but 
which  has  not  yet  attracted  the  attention  which  it  should, 
is  an  increase  in  the  forest  area.  Incalculable  damage  has 
been  done  the  slopes  about  the  headwaters  of  many  of 
the  streams  by  forest  fires.  In  the  basin  of  the  upper 
Tejunga  river,  from  which  Los  Angeles  gets  its  present 
water  supply,  there  are  many  square  miles  of  country 
once  forested  which  are  now  almost  bare.  The  stream 
bed  is  open  to  the  hot  sun,  and  a  large  part  of  the  water 
which  would  otherwise  reach  the  valley  is  now  evapor- 


142  The    Geography    of   California 

ated.  The  indiscriminate  cutting  of  the  lumber  of  the 
mountain  slopes  of  Southern  California  must  be  stopped, 
for  every  acre  cut  over  lessens  the  supply  by  a  certain 
amount. 

Value  of  Different  Slopes. — We  can,  from  an  eco- 
nomic standpoint,  distinguish  three  different  types  of 
surface  and  soil  in  Southern  California.  First,  there  is 
the  mountain  upland  with  slopes  of  varying  steepness 
where  the  bedrock  is  undergoing  disintegration  and  run- 
ning water  is  removing  the  loosened  rock  particles  with 
greater  or  less  rapidity.  Where  the  accumulation  of  rock 
particles  is  faster  than  the  removal  we  find  a  layer  of 
soil  of  slowly  increasing  thickness.  Where  erosion  is 
more  rapid  we  have  crags  and  steep  rocky  slopes. 

The  waste  rock  material,  including  fragments  of  all 
sizes  from  sand  and  clay  up  to  those  several  feet  in 
diameter,  are  swept  into  and  down  the  deep  narrow 
canons  by  the  rains  which  are  frequently  torrential  in 
character.  At  the  mouths  of  the  canons,  the  water  no 
longer  confined,  spreads  out  and  loses  its  transporting 
power  in  a  large  degree.  The  coarser  material  is 
dropped,  and  only  the  finer  is  borne  on  to  the  lowlands 
and  finally  to  the  sea.  Gravel  slopes  at  the  bases  of 
the  mountains  characterize  the  whole  of  the  Southern 
California  region.  They  are  formed  of  the  coalesced 
debris  fans  and  are  most  strikingly  shown  along  the 
southern  base  of  the  San  Gabriel  Range.  They  con- 
tain vast  stores  of  water,  and  have  generally  a  rich  soil. 
The  good  drainage,  and  climatic  conditions  particularly, 
adapt  them  to  the  growing  of  oranges. 


Southern  California  143 

The  gravel  slopes  along  the  base  of  the  San  Bernardino 
Range  are  considerably  eroded  by  the  present  streams, 
owing  probably  to  a  recent  uplift  of  these  mountains. 
The  dissected  and  truncated  remnant  is  known  as  the 
"Mesa."  This  forms  the  very  best  orange  land,  and  is 
more  nearly  free  from  frost. 

Below  the  slopes  which  we  have  been  describing  are 
the  bottom  lands  and  flood  plains  of  the  streams.  These 
are  particularly  adapted  to  the  growing  of  vegetables, 
alfalfa,  walnuts,  sugar  beets,  etc.  In  addition  to  the 
types  of  land  described  there  are  considerable  areas  of 
gently  rolling  lands  whose  materials  accumulated  beneath 
the  sea  when  the  country  stood  lower  than  now.  These 
soils  are  always  fine  and  rich.  Near  the  sea  there  are 
damp  marshy  areas  of  similar  origin,  rich  in  peaty 
organic  matter,  and  are  particularly  adapted  to  the  grow- 
ing of  celery. 

Industrial  Development. — The  industrial  develop- 
ment of  Southern  California  can  be  divided  into  three 
somewhat  overlapping  stages,  namely,  pastoral  or  graz- 
ing, general  agriculture  and  grain  raising  and  horticul- 
ture, or  fruit  growing.  The  first  belongs  characteristic- 
ally to  the  old  California  days  when  life  was  taken  easily 
and  only  work  enough  done  to  make  a  living.  Hides 
and  tallow  were  the  only  products  for  which  there  was 
much  of  a  market.  They  were  taken  by  the  American 
trading  vessels  which  frequented  the  coast  during  the 
earlier  half  of  the  last  century. 

From  the  very  first  settlement  of  the  State  irrigation 
was  considered  necessary  for  the  successful  growing  of 
garden  products   and  orchards,  but  only  sufficient  was 


144  The    Geography    of    California 

raised  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  the  various  small  communi- 
ties. The  grassy  hills  and  brush-covered  valleys  were 
considered  valuable  only  for  the  grazing  of  horses,  cattle 
and  sheep.  With  the  increase  of  the  population  it  was 
discovered  that  large  areas  of  what  was  supposed  to  be 
almost  worthless  lands  would  produce  good  crops  of 
wheat  and  barley  in  years  of  average  rainfall.  California 
came  to  be  known  as  a  great  grain  State,  and  shipment 
was  made  by  boats  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Orange  trees  were  introduced  into  California  by  the 
Mission  fathers,  and  small  orchards  were  maintained  at 
the  various  settlements,  but  with  the  secularization  of  the 
Missions  these  were  generally  neglected.  It  was  not 
until  the  coming  or  the  railroads  into  Southern  California 
that  the  growing  of  fruit  was  undertaken  on  a  large 
scale,  for  previous  to  this  event  there  was  no  way  of 
shipping  it  outside  the  State.  Beginning  about  the  time 
of  1870  there  has  been  a  continual  growth  of  the  fruit 
industry,  along  with  the  continually  increased  shipping 
facilities  and  a  more  extensive  application  of  irrigation. 
Perishable  fruits  and  vegetables  can  now  be  distributed 
all  over  the  United  States  and  portions  of  adjoining  coun- 
tries. We  see,  then,  that  water  for  irrigation  and  a 
means  of  getting  the  products  to  market  were  the  two 
geographic  factors,  in  addition  to  a  favorable  climate 
and  miles  upon  miles  of  fertile  soil,  which  were  needed 
in  order  to  turn  brush-covered  wastes  into  smiling  gar- 
dens which  would  support  a  great  and  prosperous  agri- 
cultural community.  The  development  of  a  larger  sum- 
mer water  supply  is  the  one  thing  needed  now  more  than 


Southern  California  145 

all  else  that  the  thousands  of  acres  of  still  unoccupied 
land  may  be  made  to  produce. 

The  climate  and  generally  picturesque  surroundings  of 
the  valleys  of  Southern  California  will  always  make  it 
an  attractive  region.  Los  Angeles  has  become  almost  as 
large  as  San  Francisco,  and  in  addition  to  being  a  tourist 
center,  is  assuming  importance  in  commercial  and  manu- 
facturing lines.  The  annexation  of  San  Pedro  gives  Los 
Angeles  a  seaport  which  will  be  of  great  importance  when 
the  harbor  improvements  are  completed.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  Los  Angeles  will  continue  to  be  noted 
chiefly  for  those  things  with  which  nature  has  endowed 
it,  namely,  an  agreeable  climate  and  far-reaching  fertile 
valleys  backed  by  rugged  mountains. 

San  Diego  is  the  second  city  in  size  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia, and  because  of  its  magnificent  harbor,  will  become 
of  great  commercial  importance.  It  is  also  noted  as  a 
summer  and  winter  resort,  for  it  has  a  remarkably  equa- 
ble climate.  In  the  valleys  lying  back  from  the  coast 
oranges,  lemons,  and  grapes  are  grown,  while  higher  in 
the  mountains  there  is  an  important  apple  region. 

Santa  Barbara  is  noted  as  a  resort,  as  well  as  for  its 
groves  of  olives  and  walnuts.  The  town  is  situated  on  a 
fertile  plain  at  the  base  of  the  Santa  Ynez  Range.  With 
these  mountains  on  the  north  and  the  Channel  Islands 
lying  out  at  sea,  the  region  is  well  protected  from  harsh 
winds. 

Pasadena,  having  an  elevation  of  nearly  1000  feet  on 
the  gently  sloping  plain  at  the  foot  of  the  rugged  San 
Gabriel  Range,  has  an  ideal  location  for  climate  and 
beauty,  and  has  become  far-renowned  as  a  winter  resort. 


146  The    Geography   of    California 

San  Bernardino,  Redlands,  and  Riverside  are  equally 
noted  for  their  pleasant  winter  climate,  and  are  sur- 
rounded by  orange  orchards. 

Long  Beach,  Santa  Monica,  and  Redondo  have  become 
important  places,  chiefly  because  of  their  attractive 
beaches.  Avalon  is  the  most  widely  known  of  the  island 
resorts. 


Klamath  Mountain  Region  147 

CHAPTER  XV. 
KLAMATH   MOUNTAIN   REGION. 

Location  and  Boundaries. — The  term  Klamath 
Mountains  is  applied  to  a  lofty,  mountainous  area  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  the  State.  Although  on  geographic 
grounds  this  region  is  not  easily  separated  from  the 
Coast  Ranges  and  Cascades,  yet,  when  we  come  to  study 
the  rocks  and  the  history  of  the  region  we  see"  that  the 
distinction  is  a  good  one.  The  Klamath  Mountains 
resemble  the  Sierra  Nevadas  in  their  surface  features,  in 
their  ancient  rocks  and  in  their  mineral  deposits. 

The  older  text-books  state  that  the  Coast  Ranges, 
Sierra  Nevadas,  and  Cascade  Range  meet  in  Mt.  Shasta, 
but  this  classification  is  no  longer  accepted.  The  Sierra 
Nevadas  really  terminate  in  Plumas  county,  and  the 
mountains  which  continue  on  toward  Shasta  are  a  part  of 
the  Cascade  Range.  Throughout  Oregon  the  Cascade 
Range  is  formed  entirely  of  volcanic  materials,  and  these 
extend  south  past  Shasta  and  Lassen  to  the  ancient  rocks 
of  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  which  disappear  in  northern  Plu- 
mas county.  These  volcanic  mountains  and  plateaus  of 
Northeastern  California  fill  what  was  once  a  great  depres- 
sion extending  northeasterly  from  the  upper  Sacramento 
Valley.  This  depression  separated  the  Sierra  region 
from  the  Klamath  Mountains,  and  reached  into  Southern 
and  Eastern  Oregon.  According  to  this  distinction,  Mt. 
Shasta  is  one  of  the  great  peaks  of  the  Cascade  Range, 
and  is  separated  from  the  Klamath  Mountains  by  Shasta 
and  Strawberry  valleys. 


148  The    Geography    of    California 

North  of  Redding  the  Klamath  Mountains  send  a  long 
spur  eastward,  and  include  most  of  the  rough  mountain- 
ous district  between  the  upper  McCloud  and  the  lower 
Pitt  river.  This  spur  is  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  the 
lavas  of  the  Cascade  Range. 

Physical  Features. — The  Klamath  Mountains,  like 
the  Sierra  Nevadas,  San  Gabriel  and  San  Bernardino 
ranges,  were  once  much  lower  than  they  are  now,  and 
their  surface  features  were  quite  tame  and  uninteresting. 
The  rivers  of  that  time  flowed  through  broad  valleys, 
portions  of  which  still  remain  as  plateau-like  shoulders 
overlooking  the  deep  canons  of  the  present  day. 

There  came  a  time  when  the  region  began  to  rise,  and 
with  the  increase  of  slope  the  streams  began  to  deepen 
their  channels.  As  one  looks  at  a  relief  map  he  is  puz- 
zled to  understand  why  the  Klamath  river  leaves  the 
broad  Shasta  Valley  and  flows  through  the  mountains 
in  a  deep  canon  direct  to  the  sea.  If  we  should  fill  up 
the  canon  the  Klamath  river  would  first  form  a  lake  in 
Shasta  Valley  and  then  break  through  the  lowest  point 
in  the  rim  which  leads  in  a  southerly  direction  past  Mt. 
Shasta  to  the  Sacramento  river. 

The  only  way  in  which  we  can  explain  the  peculiar 
features  mentioned  is  by  the  supposition  that  long  ago, 
before  the  mountains  had  been  elevated  to  their  present 
height,  the  lowest  outlet  to  the  sea  lay  directly  across  the 
mountains  where  the  river  flows  now,  and  that  as  they 
rose  the  movement  was  so  slow  that  the  river  was  able 
to  cut  its  channel  down,  and  so  maintain  its  position, 
until  the  canons  became  2000  to  3000  feet  deep. 


Klamath  Mountain  Region  149 

Only  three  valleys  of  any  size  are  found  within  the 
whole  Klamath  Mountain  region.  The  most  important 
one  is  Scotts  Valley,  then  comes  Hay  Fork  Valley  and, 
last,  Trinity  Valley.  In  addition,  the  canons  widen  here 
and  there  sufficiently  to  give  room  for  a  little  bottom 
land,  and  if  the  soil  has  not  been  washed  away  in 
hydraulic  mining,  we  are  likely  to  find  little  ranches.  The 
rest  of  the  surface  is  mostly  made  up  of  steep  and  rugged 
mountain  slopes  terminating  in  deep  canons. 

The  Klamath  Mountain  group  includes  a  number  of 
distinct  mountain  ranges  which  form  the  watersheds  of 
the  different  river  basins.  The  highest  and  most  pictur- 
esque of  these  is  the  Salmon  Mountains,  which  consti- 
tute the  divide  between  the  Salmon  and  Trinity  rivers. 
Several  peaks  have  an  elevation  of  over  9000  feet.  This 
region,  in  common  with  the  other  higher  mountain 
ridges  of  the  Klamath  Mountains,  was  once  glaciated. 
There  are,  in  consequence,  numerous  little  alpine  lakes 
very  similar  to  those  in  the  Sierra  Nevadas.  The  snow- 
fall is  heavy,  and  on  the  north  slope  of  Thompsons  Peak, 
which  rises  9345  feet,  there  is  a  small  glacier. 

Scotts  Mountains  lies  between  the  head  of  the  North 
Fork  of  Trinity  river  and  the  upper  Sacramento.  They 
include  Castle  Crags,  widely  known  for  their  striking 
scenic  features. 

The  Siskiyou  Mountains  lie  north  of  the  Klamath 
river  and  partly  in  Oregon.  They  include  several  peaks 
about  9000  feet  in  height.  The  Trinity  Mountains  form 
a  high,  sharp  divide  between  the  Trinity  river  and  the 
Sacramento  river.     They  pass  southward  into  the  Yallo 


150  The    Geography    of    California 

Bally  Mountains,  which  lie  at  the  extreme  southern  end 
of  what  we  are  calling  the  Klamath  Mountains. 

The  Trinity  is  the  largest  stream  which  lies  wholly 
within  the  Klamath  Mountain  region.  Its  various 
branches  drain  the  southern  portion,  and  its  waters  finally 
reach  the  Klamath  river. 

The  Klamath  is  the  largest  river  of  Northern  Califor- 
nia. It  rises  in  the  lake  region  of  Southern  Oregon,  and 
flows  a  little  south  of  west  across  a  depression  in  the 
Cascade  Range,  or  rather  volcanic  plateau,  as  we  shall 
call  this  part  of  it  in  the  following  pages,  and  directly 
into  and  through  the  Klamath  Mountains,  as  we  have 
already  seen. 

The  Sacramento  river  also  cuts  across  the  Klamath 
Mountain  region.  Its  main  source  is  in  large  springs 
near  the  southwest  base  of  Shasta,  and  flows  southerly 
through  a  picturesque  canon.  Long  ago  a  lava  stream 
swept  fifty  miles  down  this  canon,  burying  the  old  river 
bed.  The  present  stream  has  cut  down  through  the  lava 
and  exposed  in  some  places  the  gravels  of  its  former 
channel. 

The  McCloud  river  lies  east  of  the  Sacramento,  and 
flows  nearly  parallel  with  it.  Its  waters  issue  in  great 
springs  from  the  side  of  the  canon,  and  give  a  constant 
flow  of  pure  cold  water  throughout  the  year.  These 
springs,  like  other  large  springs  in  Northeastern  Cali- 
fornia, are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  surface  waters  sink 
down  through  the  lava  and  collect  in  underground 
streams.  The  lower  McCloud  river  is  bordered  by  pic- 
turesque limestone  mountains,  in  the  caverns  of  which 
extinct  animal  remains  have  been  discovered. 


Klamath  Mountain  Region  151 

One  of  the  most  interesting  mountain  trails  in  Califor- 
nia is  that  which  leads  from  Scotts  Valley  westerly  along 
the  divide  between  the  Klamath  and  Salmon  rivers.  The 
scenery  is  attractive,  and  in  addition  we  can  see  from 
many  points  the  even  sky-line  ridges  of  the  ancient  Klam- 
ath country  which  existed  here  before  the  present  moun- 
tains and  canons.  For  many  miles  these  even-topped 
ridges  approach  6000  feet  in  elevation,  while  at  their 
upper  limits  rise  the  peaks  which  long  ago  were  compara- 
tively insignificant  in  height,  but  which  now  reach  8000 
to  9000  feet. 

The  mountains  were  lifted  to  their  present  position  by 
stages,  and  at  each  period  of  rest  the  streams,  after 
having  established  a  new  grade  and  ceased  to  cut  down, 
began  to  meander  on  their  flood  plains  and  widen  their 
channels  from  canons  to  valleys.  Then,  when  the  uplift 
was  renewed  they  began  to  cut  down  again.  In  this 
way  were  formed  the  river  terraces,  some  of  which  are 
covered  with  gravel  and  are  rich  in  gold. 

Climatic  Features. — The  climate  of  the  Klamath 
Mountain  region  varies  greatly  in  different  parts.  Upon 
the  coast  it  is  extremely  wet,  and  the  temperature  is  mild, 
but  as  we  go  inland  the  precipitation  becomes  less,  the 
summers  warmer  and  the  winters  colder.  On  the  higher 
mountains  semi-arctic  conditions  prevail.  Upon  the 
eastern  edge  of  the  district  the  rainfall  is  comparatively 
light. 

Here,  as  in  many  other  parts  of  the  State,  there  is  a 
remarkable  vertical  range  exhibited  by  many  plants  and 
trees.  The  madrone  ranges  through  3000  feet,  under  the 
right  conditions  of  slope  exposure.     On  the  dry,  sunny 


152  The    Geography    of    California 

slopes  of  some  of  the  canons  occur  such  plants  as  the 
Spanish  bayonet,  which  normally  belong  in  the  semi-arid 
portions  of  the  State. 

Resources. — The  Klamath  Mountains  early  became 
known  as  a  mining  region,  chiefly  on  account  of  the 
placers,  which  proved  to  be  very  rich.  Gold  was  found 
both  in  the  gravels  of  the  present  streams  and  in  the  ter- 
race remains  of  the  older  streams.  The  gravels  were 
often  so  deep  that  they  could  not  be  worked  by  ordinary 
placer  methods,  and  so  recourse  was  had  to  hydraulic 
operations.  The  "bars,"  as  they  are  often  called,  are 
now  largely  worked  out,  but  at  one  time  hundreds  of 
"giants"  were  hurling  streams  of  water  with  terrific  force 
at  the  gravel  banks  and  washing  their  materials  into  long 
sluices  where  was  placed  quicksilver  to  catch  the  gold 
as  it  was  swept  along. 

West  and  northwest  of  Redding  are  many  old  mining 
camps,  some  of  which  are  thriving  today  on  quartz  min- 
ing, while  all  through  the  Klamath  Mountains  are  veins 
bearing  gold  and  copper. 

The  agricultural  population  of  the  Klamath  Mountain 
district  is  mostly  confined  to  the  three  large  valleys 
which  have  been  mentioned,  and  to  valleys  about  the 
borders.  In  Scotts  Valley  dairying  and  cattle  raising 
are  important  industries,  while  fruits  of  the  temperate 
latitudes  do  well  in  all  the  valleys. 

Forests  are  among  the  most  important  resources  of  the 
Klamath  region.  Owing  to  the  inaccessibility  of  the 
greater  part  of  these  forests  lumbering  has  been  mostly 
confined  to  the  coastal  region  and  to  the  district  about 
the  head  of  the  Sacramento  river.     The  redwood  tree 


Klamath  Mountain  Region  153 

reaches  its  northern  limit  in  Del  Norte  county.  The 
other  important  lumber  trees  are  the  yellow  pine,  sugar 
pine,  spruce  and  fir. 

The  effects  of  careless  lumbering  are  seen  in  the  devas- 
tated region  about  Sissons  and  in  the  McCloud  River 
Valley.  Here  is  a  beautiful  and  attractive  region  lying 
at  the  base  of  that  scenic  wonder  of  California,  Mt. 
Shasta,  which  has  been  practically  ruined  in  having  its 
forests  stripped  off.  There  is  no  more  attractive  summer 
outing  region  in  the  State,  and  the  main  body  of  the 
forests  should  have  been  left.  Many  valuable  mineral 
springs  are  scattered  along  the  upper  Sacramento  river 
canon,  and  large  numbers  of  people  resort  to  them. 


154  The    Geography   of    California 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
THE  VOLCANIC  PLATEAU  REGION. 

While  there  have  been  volcanoes  and  lava  flows  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  California  at  various  times  in  its 
geographic  history,  yet  it  is  in  the  northeastern  portion 
that  we  find  them  most  extensive.  One  of  the  greatest 
lava  floods  of  the  earth's  surface  covers  Eastern  Oregon, 
Eastern  Washington,  Southern  Idaho,  Northern  Nevada 
and  Northeastern  California.  Throughout  a  long  period 
of  time  this  region  has  been  subject  to  the  outpouring  of 
molten  material  from  within  the  earth.  This  was  partly 
in  the  form  of  lava  streams  which  spread  in  thin  sheets 
over  the  country,  and  partly  solid  or  semi-solid  material 
which  was  blown  out  of  the  craters  of  innumerable  vol- 
canoes and  cinder  cones.  The  then  existing  geographic 
features  were  buried  by  the  lava,  sometimes  to  a  depth 
of  2000  to  3000  feet.  Here  and  there  islands  of  the 
older  surface  rose  above  the  flood,  while  about  the  bor- 
ders its  relation  to  this  old  surface  was  that  of  the  sea 
to  the  land,  with  bays  of  lava  instead  of  water.  In  this 
manner  was  built  up  what  we  call  the  Columbia  Plateau, 
which  is  today  one  of  the  most  prominent  topographic 
features  of  the  Northwest. 

Folding  and  slipping  of  the  earth's  crust  along  lines  of 
fracture  followed  the  building  of  the  plateau,  so  that  now 
it  appears  broken  up  by  many  mountain  ranges.  The 
most  important  of  such  ranges  in  California  is  the  War- 
ner Range  in  the  extreme  northeastern  corner.  This 
both  creates  a  water  supply  for  the  fertile  Surprise  Val- 


The   Volcanic  Plateau  Region  155 

ley,  and  cuts  it  off  from  the  coast  drainage  and  throws 
it  into  the  Great  Basin. 

An  examination  of  the  relief  map  shows  Northeastern 
California  to  be  a  plateau  elevated  3000  to  5000  feet,  with 
many  broad,  plain-like  valleys  and  low  mountain  ridges. 
Here  are  lava  flows,  some  very  ancient,  and  others  so 
recent  that  soil  has  not  yet  accumulated  on  their  surfaces. 
Here  are  also  innumerable  cinder  cones,  and  one  line  of 
iofty  volcanoes  beginning  with  Lassen  Peak  on  the  south 
and  reaching  north  past  Mt.  Shasta.  This  line  of  peaks, 
with  the  high  land  from  which  they  rise,  is  known  as 
the  Lassen  Peak  Volcanic  Ridge  and,  as  already 
explained,  belongs  in  the  Cascade  Range. 

The  lava  streams  frequently  interrupted  the  drainage 
upon  the  volcanic  plateau,  giving  rise  to  lakes.  At  the 
present  time  most  of  the  lakes  have  been  drained  by  the 
streams  cutting  down  their  channels  at  the  outlets. 
Large  lakes  once  existed  in  Fall  River  and  Big  valleys. 

The  main  stream  draining  the  plateau  region  is  Pitt 
river.  It  had  its  source  in  former  times  in  Goose  Lake, 
a  large  body  of  water  upon  the  California-Oregon 
boundary,  but  with  the  small  rainfall  of  the  present  time 
the  lake  does  not  overflow. 

Tule  Lake  is  another  large  body  of  water  upon  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  State.  Long  ago  it  emptied 
into  the  Klamath  river,  but  now  the  evaporation  is  equal 
to  the  inflow,  and  the  water  has  become  quite  alkaline. 
The  Klamath  reclamation  project  will  partly  drain  this 
lake. 

Large  areas  of  country  have  no  surface  drainage, 
owing  to  the  porous  character  of  the  underlying  lava. 


156  The    Geography    of    California 

The  water  seeps  downward  until  it  encounters  a  layer 
of  gravel  between  two  lava  flows,  where  it  continues  in 
the  form  of  underground  streams.  Reaching  the  edge 
of  the  overlying  flow  or  the  side  of  a  canon,  it  comes 
out  as  large  cold  springs.  Such  springs  are  common 
along  the  base  of  the  Cascade  Range,  both  in  Oregon 
and  California.  They  are  often  so  large  that  they  form 
full-fledged  rivers.  Fall  river,  a  clear,  cold  stream  in 
eastern  Shasta  county,  is  formed  entirely  of  such  springs. 
One  of  these,  alone,  has  been  used  to  run  a  sawmill. 
Another  group  of  similar  springs  give  rise  to  Hat  creek, 
a  tributary  of  Pill  river. 

Eagle  Lake  lies  near  the  southeastern  border  of  the 
Plateau  region,  and  from  the  fact  that  it  has  no  outlet, 
might  be  considered  as  lying  in  the  Great  Basin.  It  is, 
however,  surrounded  by  a  volcanic  country. 

Volcanoes  and  Recent  Eruptions. — With  the 
exception  of  a  small  area  near  Mono  Lake  there  is  no 
other  part  of  California  presenting  such  interesting 
volcanic  phenomena.  At  Cinder  Cone,  a  few  miles  north- 
east of  Lassen  Peak,  occurred  what  was  probably  the 
last  eruption  in  the  United  States.  The  stubs  of  some 
of  the  trees  killed  by  the  ashes  thrown  out  of  Cinder 
Cone  are  still  standing.  Later  even  than  the  cinder  erup- 
tion which  built  this  cone  there  was  a  flow  of  black 
basalt  which  spread  over  about  ten  square  miles  of  coun- 
try. The  lava  was  viscous  and  cooled  with  a  very  rough 
surface  and  very  precipitous  margins,  sometimes  fully 
seventy-five  feet  high.  The  lava  formed  a  dam  across 
a  valley  and  gave  rise  to  Snag  Lake.  The  eruption  prob- 
ably occurred  less  than  one  hundred  years  ago.     The 


The   Volcanic  Plateau  Region  157 

recent  date  of  the  eruptions  at  Cinder  Cone  brings 
forcibly  before  us  the  possibility  of  such  events  in  the 
future. 

West  of  Tule  Lake  are  the  Modoc  Lava  Beds,  which 
are  interesting  from  the  fact  that  the  lava  is  full  of  cav- 
erns which  were  occupied  by  the  Indians  during  the 
Modoc  war,  the  last  outbreak  in  the  State. 

Hot  and  boiling  springs  are  found  in  the  neighborhood 
uf  Hot  Spring  Valley,  a  few  miles  southeast  of  Lassen 
Peak.  There  is  one  group  of  boiling  mud  springs  known 
as  the  Devil's  Kitchen.  A  body  of  water,  underlaid  by 
boiling  springs,  is  called  Lake  Tartarus. 

Lassen  Peak  has  an  elevation  of  10,437  feet,  and  has 
been  greatly  eroded  by  stream  and  glacial  action.  Mt. 
Shasta,  rising  14,380  feet,  is  the  most  striking  mountain 
in  California.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  rises  from 
a  base  which  is  comparatively  low,  about  4000  feet.  The 
fringe  of  forest  on  the  lower  slopes  and  the  snow-covered 
top  standing  all  alone,  offers  a  grand  and  majestic  spec- 
tacle. Erosion  is  rapid  in  the  soft  fragmental  materials 
of  which  it  is  largely  composed,  and  in  time  will  reduce 
it  to  comparative  insignificance.  Many  older  and  almost 
worn  down  volcanoes  are  scattered  along  the  crest  of  the 
Cascade  Range.  A  number  of  glaciers  of  considerable 
extent  are  found  upon  the  northerly  slopes,  and  are  doing 
their  share  in  tearing  down  the  mountain. 

We  must  bear  in  mind,  in  studying  the  geographic 
features  of  volcanic  regions,  that  lava  flows  generally 
produce  gentle  slopes  and  spread  over  the  surface  in 
thin  sheets,  while  the  cinder  cones  and  lofty  peaks,  such 
as  Shasta  and  Lassen,  with  their  steep  slopes,  are  formed 


158  The    Geography    of    California 

in  large  part  of  the  solid  or  semi-solid  fragments  of 
lava  hurled  from  the  craters  during  the  periods  of  violent 
eruption.  These  'fall  down  about  the  orifice  and  thus 
gradually  build  up  the  rim  of  the  crater.  Lava  flows 
may  burst  from  the  crater,  but  they  are  more  likely  to 
break  out  part  way  down  the  outer  slope,  or  near  the 
base. 

Climate. — Owing  to  its  elevation  the  winter  climate 
is  colder  than  that  of  most  of  the  other  settled  portions 
of  California.  The  precipitation  decreases  as  we  go 
from  the  main  Lassen  Peak  volcanic  ridge  easterly,  so 
that  fully  half  of  the  region  has  a  semi-arid  climate. 
There  is  generally  sufficient  rain  to  produce  grain,  but 
gardens  must  be  irrigated. 

Resources. — There  is  but  little  mining  in  the  plateau 
region,  for  the  older  rocks  which  in  other  parts  of  the 
State  carry  minerals  are  here  buried  by  the  lava.  The 
important  industries  are  lumbering,  agriculture,  and 
stock  raising.  The  population  is  scattered,  and  there  are 
no  towns  of  any  size  in  the  district. 

The  western  part  of  the  plateau  region  lies  within  the 
great  forest  belt  of  the  Sierra  Nevada-Cascade  Range. 
As  we  go  eastward  toward  Nevada  the  lessened  rainfall 
is  shown  in  the  fact  that  the  forests  become  confined  to 
the  mountain  ridges,  while  the  valleys  are  covered  with 
sagebrush. 

Much  of  the  region  about  Mt.  Shasta  has  been  lum- 
bered over,  and  owing  to  careless  and  destructive  meth- 
ods will  be  non-productive  for  a  long  time.  In  other 
parts  the  forests  are  now  being  cut,  but  it  is  to  be  hoped 


The   Volcanic  Plateau  Region  159 

that  before  the  country  is  entirely  stripped  that  enlight- 
ened methods  will  be  introduced. 

The  large  valleys  of  the  central  portion  of  the  region 
are  given  over  to  a  variety  of  farm  products,  but  the 
region  is  so  isolated  that  few  of  these  can  be  shipped  to 
market.  Grain  and  hay  are  produced  for  stock,  and  as 
the  latter  can  be  driven  out  they  form  the  most  important 
product. 

Fruit,  particularly  apples,  are  now  grown  in  many  of 
the  valleys,  and  with  the  entrance  of  railroads  into  the 
region  will  prove  profitable  crops. 

The  plateau  province  embraces  Lassen,  Modoc  and  the 
eastern  part  of  Shasta  and  Siskiyou  counties. 


160  The    Geography    of    California 

CHAPTER   XVII. 
THE   GREAT    BASIN    PROVINCE. 

Extent  and  General  Character. — Fremont  was  the 
first  to  explore  and  describe  that  vast  interior  portion  of 
the  continent  lying  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
the  Sierra  Nevadas.  He  found  it  to  be  a  succession  of 
sandy  deserts  and  barren  mountain  ranges  with  no 
external  drainage.  Here  and  there  were  alkaline  or 
saline  lakes,  often  disappearing  completely  during  the 
heat  of  summer  and  leaving  a  white  crust  over  the  sur- 
face. There  were  almost  no  streams,  save  torrential  ones, 
which  existed  for  a  short  time  after  exceptipnally  heavy 
storms,  and  springs  were  few  and  hidden  away  in  the 
mountain  recesses.  The  larger  part  of  the  torrential 
waters  were  either  evaporated  or  absorbed  in  the  sands, 
so  that  the  different  basins,  of  which  there  were  hundreds 
and  perhaps  thousands,  never  overflowed,  and  no  drain- 
age system  was  set  up.  Fremont  pictures  this  vast  desert 
region,  or  Great  Basin,  as  he  called  it,  as  dreary  and 
desolate,  and  what  little  life  it  contained  as  dwarfed  and 
peculiar  in  character.  For  us,  who  can  now  enter  this 
region  under  more  favorable  circumstances,  it  has  most 
wonderful  attractions.  The  desert,  at  certain  seasons  of 
the  year  when  the  air  is  cool  and  the  sky  clear,  is  one  of 
the  most  inspiring  regions  of  the  continent. 

We  must  not  conceive  of  the  Great  Basin  as  a  simple 
region  with  a  rim  of  inclosing  mountains,  but  rather 
as  made  up  of  an  almost  innumerable  number  of  smaller 
basins.     The  bottoms  of  some  of  the  basins  or  valleys 


The  Great  Basin  Province  161 

have  an  elevation  of  6000  feet,  while  others  are  below 
the  level  of  the  sea.  The  Great  Basin  includes  the  west- 
ern part  of  Utah,  nearly  the  whole  of  Nevada,  and  the 
eastern  one-third  of  California. 

In  spite  of  the  geographical  importance  of  the  Great 
Basin,  it  is  hardly  more  than  mentioned  in  our  geogra- 
phies, and  most  school  children  know  nothing  about  it. 
The  region  forms  one  of  the  most  important  barriers 
separating  California  from  the  East,  contains  valuable 
deposits  of  the  precious  minerals,  and  owing  to  its  unique 
climatic  conditions,  contains  some  of  the  most  important 
beds  of  salt,  soda  and  borax  known  in  the  world. 

The  northern  and  southern  boundaries  of  the  Great 
Basin  are  determined  by  the  drainage  systems  of  the 
Columbia  and  Colorado  rivers,  respectively.  Its  western 
boundary,  beginning  in  Northeastern  California  and 
going  south,  is  first ;  the  Warner  Range,  followed  by  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  Tehachapi,  San  Emegdio,  Francisquito, 
San  Gabriel,  San  Bernardino,  San  Jacinto  and  Peninsula 
ranges.  The  watershed  separating  the  Pacific  drainage 
from  the  Great  Basin  forms  the  meeting  point  of  two 
sharply  contrasted  climatic  provinces.  In  the  desert  one, 
which  we  are  discussing,  are  many  strange  plant  and 
animal  forms.  At  first  sight  these  seem  few  in  number 
and  to  have  a  hard  struggle  for  existence,  but  in  reality 
they  are  very  numerous  and  have  become  so  adapted  to 
their  conditions  that  life  for  them  is  as  easy  as  it  is  for 
organisms  in  other  regions. 

Surface  Features. — That  part  of  the  Great  Basin 
lying  in  California  is  far  from  having  a  uniform  charac- 
ter.    For  convenience  we  might  distinguish  three  parts, 


162  The    Geography   of    California 

namely :  ( 1 )  The  narrow  strip  lying  east  of  the  Warner 
Range  and  Sierra  Nevadas;  (2)  the  Mohave  Desert, 
occupying  a  large  area  in  the  central  southern  part,  and 
(3)  the  Salton  Sink,  otherwise  known  as  the  Colorado 
Desert  or  Imperial  Valley. 

In  the  extreme  northeastern  corner  of  the  State  the 
lofty  Warner  Range,  with  its  eastern  fault  escarpment, 
supplies  water  for  the  fertile  Surprise  Valley.  This  is 
perhaps  the  best  cultivated  portion  of  the  Great  Basin  in 
California.  In  the  center  of  the  valley  is  a  sink  contain- 
ing three  alkali  lakes  which  nearly  dry  up  in  the  middle 
of  summer. 

Farther  south  we  come  to  Honey  Lake  and  valley  of 
the  same  name.  This  valley  lies  close  under  the  fault 
escarpment  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas  which,  although  not  as 
high  as  farther  south,  is  yet  quite  precipitous.  The  part 
of  the  valley  lying  along  the  base  of  the  mountains  is 
dotted  with  many  ranches,  water  for  irrigation  being 
supplied  by  streams  from  the  Sierras.  Susanville  is  the 
leading  town  of  this  region.  The  next  important  feature 
to  the  south  is  the  Lake  Tahoe  basin.  This  lake,  although 
lying  high  up  in  the  Sierras,  in  a  region  of  heavy  precipi- 
tation, drains  through  the  Truckee  river  into  the  Great 
Basin.  This  is  the  largest  stream  of  the  whole  desert 
region.  Much  of  the  water  is  now  diverted  to  irrigate 
thousands  of  acres  of  sagebrush  desert  in  Nevada,  and 
what  is  left  finally  reaches  Pyramid  Lake,  in  the  north- 
western part  of  the  State. 

The  next  important  basin  to  the  south  is  that  occupied 
by  Mono  Lake.  This  body  of  water  and  the  surrounding 
volcanic  region  offers  one  of  the  most  interesting  places 


The  Great  Basin  Province  163 

for  study  in  the  whole  of  California.  The  lake  itself 
lies  in  the  lowest  portion  of  a  sunken  fault  block,  back  of 
which  rises  the  snow-covered  peaks  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
This  region  is  still  sinking,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  of 
an  escarpment  at  the  point  where  Mill  creek  issues  from 
the  mountains,  which  shows  a  recent  displacement  of 
forty  feet. 

Mono  Lake  has  about  the  same  elevation  as  Lake 
Tahoe,  but  instead  of  being  pure  fresh  water,  is  so 
intensely  alkaline  and  saline  that  the  only  form  of  life 
which  it  contains  is  a  brine  shrimp.  The  islands  in  the 
lake  are  formed  largely  of  lava,  and  one  contains  a 
volcanic  cone.  The  fissured  and  broken  rocks  tell  the 
story  of  violent  earthquakes  following  the  cessation  of 
the  volcanic  activities. 

South  of  the  lake  is  a  group  of  mountains  known  as 
the  Mono  Craters,  which  are  extremely  interesting.  At 
one  spot  is  a  flow  of  black  lava  which  looks  as  if  it  had 
cooled  but  yesterday.  At  other  points  are  deep  craters 
formed  by  explosive  forces,  while  fine  pumice  or  "vol- 
canic ashes,"  is  spread  all  over  the  surrounding  country. 
In  one  crater  is  an  eruption  of  obsidian  lava  or  volcanic 
glass,  as  it  is  often  called.  Here  the  Indians  used  to 
come  for  the  material  for  their  arrow  and  spear  points, 
and  this,  through  exchange,  was  taken  to  distant  parts  of 
the  State. 

Continuing  south  along  the  eastern  base  of  the  Sierras 
over  a  volcanic  country  which  in  places  has  the  appear- 
ance of  a  table  land,  we  reach  Owens  Valley.  This  is 
the  largest,  with  the  exception  of  Imperial,  of  the  valleys 
of  the  Great  Basin  which  lie  in  California,  and  supports 


164  The    Geography    of    California 

a  considerable  population.  The  valley  occupies  what  we 
might  call  a  deep  trough,  although  it  has  an  elevation  of 
4000  to  5000  feet,  between  the  rugged  Sierras  on  the 
one  hand  and  the  Inyo- White  Mountain  Range  on  the 
other.  The  highest  peak  of  the  White  Mountains  has  an 
elevation  of  over  14,000  feet,  while  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  trough  rises  the  lofty  escarpment  of  the  Sierras, 
with  peaks  culminating  in  Mt.  Whitney,  14,501  feet. 
The  length  of  Owens  Valley  is  about  seventy  miles,  and 
average  width  ten  miles.  It  is  due  to  the  dropping  of 
the  earth  between  the  two  mountain  ranges,  and  is  in 
reality  formed  of  two  main  blocks,  the  eastern  one  of 
which  is  occupied  by  the  lowlands  along  Owens  river, 
while  the  western  one  is  higher,  and  is  best  exemplified 
in  the  Alabama  Hills,  near  the  town  of  Lone  Pine.  The 
great  Owens  Valley  earthquake  of  1872  was  the  result 
of  movement  between  these  two  earth  blocks. 

East  of  the  Inyo-White  Mountain  Range  we  find  a 
succession  of  desert  valleys  and  north  and  south  moun- 
tain ranges  taking  us  into  Nevada.  Saline  Valley,  at 
the  eastern  base  of  the  Inyo  Range,  is  of  great  interest. 
The  block  of  the  earth's  crust  which  forms  the  valley  has 
been  dropped  in  times  so  recent  that  the  mountain  wall, 
which  rises  above  it  fully  8000  feet,  is  still  extremely 
precipitous. 

Owens  Lake  is  a  large  shallow  body  of  water,  and  very 
alkaline.  Although  it  receives  the  drainage  of  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  highest  parts  of  the  Sierras,  yet  it  is  steadily 
decreasing  in  size,  and  will  eventually  disappear.  This 
event  will  be  hastened  through  the  construction  of  the 
Los  Angeles  aqueduct,  which  will  take  away  a  large  por- 


The  Great  Basin  Province  165 

tion  of  the  water  of  Owens  river.  Mono  Lake,  on  the 
contrary,  is  rising  slowly.  Its  waters  can  never  be 
diverted,  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  country,  although 
some  of  the  supplying  streams  can  be  used  for  irrigation. 

Owens  Lake  overflowed  its  basin  during  the  glacial 
period  and  sent  a  mighty  stream  southward  between  the 
Coso  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The  gap  is 
known  as  Little  Lake,  from  a  body  of  water  occupying  a 
portion  of  the  ancient  channel.  The  stream  spread  over 
a  part  of  the  Salt  Wells  Desert,  and  finally  reached  the 
basin  known  as  Searles  Borax  Marsh.  The  shore  lines 
of  the  ancient  lake  are  still  clearly  marked  along  the  sides 
of  the  inclosing  mountains. 

The  Argus  Range,  the  Panamint  Range  and  the 
Funeral  Mountains  lie  east  of  the  Sierras  and  north  of 
the  Mohave  Desert.  They  have  a  north  and  south  direc- 
tion, and  are  noted  landmarks.  Panamint  Valley  is  but 
a  little  more  than  1000  feet  above  sea  level,  and  was  once 
occupied  by  a  lake.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  Panamint 
Range  are  the  desolate  reaches  of  Death  Valley  which  at 
Bennetts  Wells  is  276  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea. 
In  spite  of  the  fact  that  this  region  is  extremely  arid 
there  is  plenty  of  water  in  Death  Valley  if  one  only 
knows  where  to  look  for  it.  The  vast  stretch  of  salt  and 
alkali  marsh  through  the  center  of  the  valley  is  its  most 
dangerous  feature.  Extensive  lakes  once  occupied  the 
most  of  the  valleys  of  this  desert  region. 

All  the  mountains  in  the  region  east  of  the  Sierra 
Nevadas  have  a  north  and  south  direction,  and  have  been 
uplifted  in  times  as  recent  as  the  uplift  of  the  lofty  Sierra, 
if  we  can  judge  from  their  steep  escarpments.    When  we 


166  The    Geography   of   California 

get  as  far  south  as  the  Mohave  Desert,  however,  we 
encounter  a  country  possessing  a  radically  different  char- 
acter. Here  are  very  ancient  mountains.  There  have 
been  no  important  disturbances  of  the  earth's  crust,  and 
these  old  mountains  have  been  almost  worn  away.  The 
features  suggest  old  age  and  decay. 

For  long  ages  the  mountains  of  the  Mohave  Desert 
have  been  wasting  away  under  the  influence  of  rock 
disintegration  and  erosion.  Before  the  uplift  of  the 
Sierra  Nevadas  and  the  San  Gabriel  Range  disturbed 
the  drainage  lines  of  these  ancient  times  and  made  the 
Great  Basin  the  streams  undoubtedly  flowed  away  to  the 
sea.  They  then  carried  with  them  the  debris  of  these  old 
mountains,  but  for  a  long  time  past  there  has  been  no 
outlet,  and  the  waste  has  gone  on  accumulating  in  the 
valleys  until  in  some  of  them  it  is  probably  several  thou- 
sand feet  deep.  Where  the  desert  is  crossed  by  the 
Southern  Pacific  Railroad  we  have  the  best  view  of  these 
almost  vanished  mountains.  The  once  young  and  pre- 
cipitous mountains  have  become  old,  and  the  processes 
of  decay  and  erosion  have  almost  ceased.  They  are 
probably  the  oldest  topographic  features  to  be  found  in 
California,  excepting  only  the  region  of  low  relief  about 
Riverside  and  Perris,  in  Southern  California. 

As  one  goes  easterly  across  the  Mohave  Desert,  on 
the  Santa  Fe  Railroad,  the  same  old  mountains,  although 
not  quite  so  nearly  worn  down,  appear  all  the  way  to 
the  Needles.  At  only  two  places  are  there  new  features, 
and  these  consist  of  small  craters  and  flows  of  black  lava 
which  contrast  strongly  with  the  desert  sands. 


The  Great  Basin  Province  167 

The  Mohave  river  is  the  only  stream  of  any  conse- 
quence which  enters  this  vast  desert  region.  It  flows 
northerly  from  the  San  Bernardino  Mountains  and  in  the 
direction  of  Death  Valley,  but  sinks  in  the  sand  long 
before  reaching  it. 

Next  to  the  mountains,  the  most  interesting  feature 
of  the  desert  is  the  broad,  gently  sloping  plains  of  rock 
waste  which  surround  the  scattered  mountains  on  all 
sides  and  dip  away  to  the  sinks.  These  plains  are  miles 
in  extent  and  are  made  up  of  gravel  or  sand  which  the 
occasional  torrential  streams  have  brought  down  from 
the  mountains  and  spread  out  in  sheets.  When  it  does 
rain  here  the  waters  gather  quickly  on  the  barren  rocky 
slopes  of  the  mountains,  roar  through  the  canons  and 
then,  with  their  load  of  rock  debris,  spread  out  over  miles 
of  country.  In  such  a  dry  land,  where  streams  are  many 
miles  apart,  it  is  strange  that  the  effects  of  water  should 
be  so  prominent,  but  it  is  nevertheless  true.  There  are 
places  where  the  railroads  have  to  build  many  miles  of 
ditches  to  keep  the  tracks  from  being  washed  out.  Occa- 
sionally lakes  are  formed,  and  in  1909  traffic  on  the  Santa 
Fe  was  stopped  by  such  a  body  of  water. 

Low,  barren  mountains,  the  southeastward  prolonga- 
tion of  the  San  Bernardino  Range,  separate  the  Mohave 
from  the  Colorado  Desert.  Reaching  the  latter  we  find 
a  very  different  country  from  that  just  described.  It  is 
equally  barren  and  destitute  of  water,  at  least  before  the 
formation  of  the  Salton  Sea,  but  its  surface  was  built  up 
in  a  very  different  manner.  The  Gulf  of  California  once 
extended  as  far  north  as  the  town  of  Indio,  while  the 


168  The    Geography    of    California 

mouth  of  the  Colorado  river  was  a  short  distance  below 
Yuma. 

The  changes  in  the  earth's  surface  which  great  rivers 
effect  in  the  course  of  long  ages,  is  well  illustrated  in 
the  work  of  the  Colorado  river.  The  waters  of  this 
stream  are  so  loaded  with  silt  during  periods  of  flood 
that  they  look  like  so  much  seething  mud.  An  estimate 
of  the  amount  of  silt  brought  down  by  the  Colorado  in 
the  year  1890  gave  61,000,000  tons.  This  is  enough  to 
make  fifty-three  square  miles  of  dry  alluvial  soil  one  foot 
deep,  or  the  same  area  more  than  three  feet  deep  with 
recently  settled  mud. 

Bearing  the  above  facts  in  mind  it  is  easy  to  under- 
stand how  the  river  in  the  course  of  unnumbered  thou- 
sands of  years  built  its  delta  across  the  Gulf  of  California 
forming  the  inclosed  area  now  known  as  the  Salton 
Basin.  The  tides  of  the  gulf  bore  much  of  the  silt  far- 
ther to  the  south,  so  that  the  total  amount  of  material 
finally  deposited  is  much  greater  than  that  which  appears 
as  dry  land. 

Salton  Basin  was  at  first  a  salt  lagoon,  being  filled  with 
sea  water  which  had  been  cut  off  from  the  gulf  by  the 
delta.  As  the  river  channels  moved  here  and  there  over 
the  delta  much  of  the  water  was  at  times  diverted  into 
the  basin,  and  the  lagoon  became  a  fresh  water  lake. 
Such  was  its  condition  at  the  time  of  the  last  maximum 
expansion  recorded  in  the  ancient  beaches  and  wave-cut 
cliffs  which  can  be  traced  all  around  the  borders  of  the 
Colorado  Desert,  for  the  fresh-water  clam  shells  strew 
the  beaches  in  countless  numbers. 


The  Great  Basin  Province  169 

As  the  river  swung  back  and  forth  on  the  delta  there 
were  times  when  no  water  of  any  consequence  reached 
the  lake,  and  its  bed  finally  became  dry  save  for  the  salt 
marsh  in  the  lowest  place.  This  salt  may  have  been 
partly  derived  from  deposits  left  in  the  ancient  salt 
lagoon,  and  partly  from  the  accumulation  of  this  material 
in  solution  in  the  river  water. 

The  recent  overflow  of  the  river,  and  the  formation  of 
Salton  Sea,  was  due  directly  to  the  presence  of  a  canal 
which  at  time  of  high  water  allowed  the  river  to  break 
through  into  the  basin,  but  indirectly  to  the  fact  that  it 
had  been  flowing  to  the  south  for  many  years,  and  that 
part  of  its  delta  had  become  so  lessened  in  slope  that 
very  likely  it  would  have  broken  into  Salton  Basin  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years,  even  if  man  had  not  come  in  as  a 
disturbing  factor. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  Great  Basin  is  one  of 
its  most  interesting  and  peculiar  features.  Every  phys- 
ical condition  tends  to  make  a  desert  of  this  region.  In 
the  first  place  it  lies  in  the  interior  of  the  continent,  and 
is  shut  off  from  the  sea  by  mountains.  In  the  second 
place  the  mountain  ranges  extend  north  and  south,  and 
as  the  storms  move  easterly  with  the  prevailing  westerly 
air  currents  of  the  temperate  zone,  they  abstract  a  large 
part  of  the  moisture  of  the  air  before  it  reaches  this 
interior  basin.  In  addition  to  being  very  dry  the  summer 
temperature  of  the  lower  and  southern  portions  of  the 
Great  Basin  is  intense.  There  is  an  extraordinary  range 
of  temperature  between  night  and  day,  owing  to  the  clear 
air   and  the   radiation   from   the   barren   surface.     The 


170  The    Geography    of    California 

temperature  is  further  affected  by  the  presence  of  lofty 
mountains  cutting  off  the  cool  sea  winds  which  so  greatly 
temper  the  summers  along  the  coast. 

We  have  already  learned  that  the  storms  which  pass 
inland  from  the  Pacific  are  more  numerous  in  the  north- 
ern United  States,  and  as  these  deserts  extend  pretty  well 
to  the  south  and  almost  out  of  the  course  of  these  storms, 
we  have  an  added  reason  for  their  dryness.  The  barrier 
mountains  of  the  Mt.  Whitney  region  are  also  more  lofty 
than  farther  north.  It  is  in  the  deserts  back  of  these 
mountains,  so  to  speak,  that  we  have  the  greatest  heat 
and  greatest  aridity. 

Most  remarkable  contrasts  in  climate  are  found  in  the 
Great  Basin  where  lofty  mountains  break  vthe  surface. 
The  tops  of  those  mountains  which  reach  up  to  8000  to 
10,000  feet  have  a  cool  climate  with  moderate  precipita- 
tion, while  the  desert  sands  at  their  bases  seldom  receive 
rain,  and  are  subject  to  such  high  temperature  that  it 
would  appear  as  if  no  living  thing  could  exist. 

The  climate  has  given  rise  to  much  that  is  unusual  in 
the  topography.  The  lack  of  water  to  form  streams  has 
left  innumerable  basins  instead  of  a  series  of  valleys  with 
a  connected  drainage  system.  In  some  of  the  basins  are 
lakes  strongly  impregnated  with  salts  of  various  kinds. 
In  a  normally  moist  climate  there  would  be  found  here 
neither  lakes  nor  salts  unless  the  displacements  of  the 
land  and  the  mountain-making  movements  were  so  rapid 
that  continuous  drainage  lines  could  not  be  maintained. 

The  peculiarities  of  the  living  things  which  have 
adapted  themselves  to  the  lack  of  moisture  show  how,  in 


The  Great  Basin  Province  171 

the  course  of  time,  climate  aids  in  the  development  of 
new  species.  Among  plants,  the  size  of  the  leaf  has 
decreased  in  order  that  there  may  be  less  evaporation, 
and  frequently  the  surface  of  leaf  and  stem  is  covered 
with  a  sticky  or  resinous  substance  which  still  further 
aids  in  retaining  the  moisture.  Some  plants,  such  as  the 
cactuses,  have  developed  a  fleshy  body  which  in  certain 
species  holds  large  quantities  of  water.  Thorns  also 
appear  evidently  as  a  means  of  protection.  Among  the 
animals  there  are  also  strange  adaptations.  The  most 
remarkable  is  the  desert  tortoise,  which  has  two  water 
pockets,  enabling  it  to  exist  for  a  long  time  without  a 
new  supply. 

The  air  conditions  are  such,  particularly  in  the  sum- 
mer, that  when  it  does  rain  the  precipitation  is  sudden 
and  heavy,  and  we  call  the  storm  a  "cloudburst."  Owing 
to  the  lack  of  a  protecting  cover  of  vegetation,  the  water 
runs  off  the  mountain  slopes  with  great  rapidity,  spread- 
ing out  in  thin  sheets  over  miles  of  the  desert  sands. 
Some  years  the  rains  come  at  the  right  time  in  the  spring 
and  the  desert  soon  becomes  a  veritable  flower  garden, 
with  many  varieties  of  plants  and  a  wealth  of  color.  The 
seeds  mature,  the  plants  dry  up,  and  in  a  few  short  weeks 
the  desert  is  again  a  mass  of  barren  gravel  and  drifting 
sand.  The  seeds  lie  buried,  perhaps  for  years,  until 
another  favorable  season  occurs,  when  the  process  is 
repeated. 

In  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Mohave  and  Colorado 
deserts  the  rainfall  is  rarely  in  excess  of  two  or  three 
inches,  and  sometimes  two  years  pass  with  scarcely  any 


172  The    Geography    of    California 

rain.  There  is  no  portion  of  the  desert,  however,  which 
does  not  contain  more  or  less  vegetation  except  the  sinks, 
where,  owing  to  the  presence  of  such  quantities  of  salts 
of  various  kinds  are  apparently  absolutely  barren. 

Natural  Resources. — The  vegetation  of  the  desert 
varies  with  the  soil,  elevation  and  rainfall.  Over  the  vast 
reaches  of  the  Mohave  Desert  the  most  widely  distrib- 
uted plant  is  the  Mexican  creosote  bush.  Along  the  dry 
water  courses  are  many  mesquite  trees,  and  in  portions 
of  the  Colorado  Desert  these  form  thorny  and  almost 
impenetrable  groves.  In  the  moister  portions  of  the 
desert,  particularly  toward  the  north,  the  sagebrush 
abounds,  and  under  favorable  conditions  grows  to  a 
height  of  twelve  feet. 

In  the  Mohave  Desert  there  are  extensive  groves  of 
a  tree-like  yucca,  which  sometimes  covers  miles  of  the 
long,  gentle  gravel  slopes.  The  cactus  is  more  or  less 
generally  distributed,  but  in  the  western  portion  of  the 
Colorado  Desert  it  grows  in  the  greatest  variety  and  pro- 
fusion. The  native  California  palm,  so  widely  grown  for 
ornamental  purposes,  is  found  in  many  of  the  mountain 
canons  tributary  to  the  Colorado  Desert. 

A  zonal  distribution  of  plants  on  the  mountain  slopes 
is  well  illustrated  in  many  places.  In  the  eastern  part  of 
the  Mohave  Desert,  for  example,  we  pass  from  the  zone 
of  the  Yuccas  to  that  of  the  desert  juniper.  Higher  still, 
with  more  rain  and  a  lower  temperature,  we  reach  the 
pifion  pine,  and  if  the  mountains  be  high  enough  we  may 
reach  the  yellow  pine.  As  one  travels  through  the  desert 
he  can  make  a  rough  estimate  of  the  elevation  by  the  kind 
of  vegetation  which  he  encounters. 


The  Great  Basin  Province  173 

The  fiber  of  the  tree-yucca  has  qualities  which  will 
some  day  make  it  useful.  Desert  plants  have  large  roots 
in  many  cases,  and  these  are  dug  out  and  used  as  fuel. 

Springs  are  so  rare  in  portions  of  the  desert  that  it  is 
unsafe  to  travel  there  without  a  guide.  It  is  interesting 
to  observe  upon  a  map  of  the  desert  how  the  courses  of 
all  trails  and  roads  are  determined  more  by  the  watering 
places  than  by  any  other  factors.  The  difficulty  of  obtain- 
ing water  often  makes  it  impossible  to  work  certain 
mineral  deposits  which  would  otherwise  be  valuable. 

It  is  mainly  the  presence  of  minerals  in  the  desert 
mountains  that  has  called  a  considerable  population  into 
this  region.  Gold,  silver  and  copper  are  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  metals  obtained.  Among  the  most  valuable 
of  the  minerals  of  the  Great  Basin  are  salt,  soda  and 
borax.  Deposits  of  borax  have  long  been  worked  in 
Death  Valley  and  Searles  Borax  marsh.  It  also  occurs 
in  Saline  Valley,  east  of  the  Inyo  Range.  Salt  is  found 
in  a  number  of  places,  both  in  the  form  of  rock  salt  and 
as  a  loose  surface  deposit.  Salt  of  the  latter  kind  was 
obtained  from  the  Salton  Sink  before  it  was  flooded  by 
the  inflow  of  the  Colorado  river.  The  Danby  salt  marsh, 
in  the  eastern  Mohave  Desert,  contains  an  inexhaustible 
supply  of  rock  salt.  It  was  quarried  at  one  time  and 
hauled  to  the  railroad  by  a  traction  engine.  An  interest- 
ing cabin  made  of  blocks  of  salt  still  stands  here,  for 
there  is  not  rain  enough  to  dissolve  it. 

The  most  noted  mining  town  east  of  the  Sierra  Neva- 
das  is  Bodie,  in  Mono  county.  It  has  many  large  mines 
which  have  produced  a  great  deal  of  gold.     Inyo  county 


174  The    Geography    of    California 

is  also  noted  for  its  gold  mines,  and  in  past  years  for  the 
production  of  silver  and  lead. 

Agriculture  in  the  Great  Basin  is  restricted  to  those 
areas  where  water  can  be  obtained  for  irrigation.  The 
Truckee,  Carson  and  Walker  rivers  supply  large  valleys 
in  the  northern  portion  of  the  district  which  we  have 
been  describing.  Owens  Valley  is  well  watered,  and  sup- 
ports a  considerable  population.  The  chief  exports  are 
cattle  and  horses.  Apples  and  many  other  temperate 
fruits  do  well  here. 

The  delta  of  the  Colorado  river  is  composed  of  a  deep 
and  inexhaustible  soil,  and  can  for  the  most  part  be 
reached  by  irrigation  ditches.  The  population  of  this 
region,  now  known  as  Imperial  Valley,  is  rapidly  grow- 
ing, and  many  thousands  of  acres  are  under  cultivation 
where  a  few  years  ago  many  a  desert  traveler  has  per- 
ished for  lack  of  water.  All  the  semi-tropical  fruits  are 
grown  here,  and  ripen  so  early  that  they  can  be  placed 
on  the  market  ahead  of  those  from  any  other  part  of  the 
State. 

Not  the  least  among  the  uses  which  can  be  made  of 
the  desert  is  that  of  a  sanitarium.  The  bracing,  life- 
giving  air  which  moves  across  its  vast  stretches  is  not 
only  a  pleasure  for  the  strong  to  breathe,  but  is  very 
beneficial  to  the  sick  in  the  case  of  many  diseases. 


Effect  of  Geographic  Conditions  175 

APPENDIX. 


EFFECT   OF   GEOGRAPHIC   CONDITIONS   ON 
THE  SETTLEMENT  AND  DEVELOP- 
MENT OF  CALIFORNIA. 

California,  as  has  already  been  shown,  is  far  from 
being  a  geographic  unit.  Stretching  along  the  Pacific 
through  nearly  ten  degrees  of  latitude,  and  reaching  250 
miles  into  the  interior  across  broad  valleys,  deserts  and 
lofty  mountain  ranges,  the  State  presents  a  remarkable 
variety  of  geographic  conditions.  If  we  consider  the 
variety  of  surface  features,  climates  and  productions, 
which  range  from  those  of  the  sub-tropical  zone  to  those 
of  the  arctic,  we  might  justly  consider  California  as  a 
whole  empire  in  itself. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  which  is  the  most  important  geo- 
graphic factor  concerned  in  the  settlement  and  develop- 
ment of  California.  It  is  ordinarily  assumed  that  the 
location  or  position  of  a  country  is  the  most  important 
one,  but  in  the  region  under  discussion  we  shall  have  to 
consider  much  more  seriously  than  is  ordinarily  neces- 
sary the  factors  of  surface  features  or  topography, 
climate  and  mineral  resources. 

We  have  seen  that  latitude  is  of  less  significance  than 
is  usually  the  case,  but  that  climate  as  influenced  by  the 
ocean,  by  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds,  by  the 
position  and  direction  of  the  mountain  ranges,  and  by 


176  The    Geography    of    California 

elevation  above  the  ocean  possesses  extraordinary  impor- 
tance. 

As  far  as  the  position  of  California  is  concerned  in  its 
development  we  see  that  it  plays  a  much  less  important 
pare  now  than  in  the  period  of  early  exploration  and 
discovery.  Lying  upon  the  Pacific,  which  Spain  claimed 
the  right  to  control,  and  adjacent  to  Mexico,  what  was 
more  natural  than  that  those  people  should  discover  and 
take  possession  of  the  region?  In  its  remoteness  and 
geographic  isolation  from  the  early  English  settlements 
along  the  eastern  shore  of  the  continent  there  was  no 
reason  whatever  to  suppose  that  English  speaking  people 
would  ever  control  California. 

Passing  by,  for  the  moment,  the  Spanish  discovery 
and  settlement,  we  can  say  that  the  real  development  of 
California  began  with  the  discovery  of  gold.  Previous  to 
this  event  the  region  was  practically  unoccupied  save  for 
a  few  small  Spanish  settlements  whose  inhabitants  had 
come  the  comparatively  short  and  easy  journey  from 
Mexico,  and  an  occasional  American  who  had  either  come 
by  some  trading  vessel  or  had  wandered  across  the  con- 
tinent. 

While  the  gold  seekers  came  from  all  parts  of  the 
world,  by  far  the  larger  number  were  from  the  Eastern 
United  States.  The  stories  of  fortunes  to  be  made  in 
the  gravels  of  the  mountain  streams  started  a  great 
migration  to  a  region  which  not  only  occupied  a  remote 
portion  of  the  continent,  but  was  further  isolated  by 
almost  impassable  geographic  barriers.  The  journey 
across  the  continent  occupied  many  months,  and  was 
difficult  and  dangerous.     Many  went  by  sailing  vessel 


Effect  of  Geographic  Conditions  177 

around  the  Horn,  but  this  was  fully  as  long  and  danger- 
ous as  the  overland  trip.  The  Isthmus  route  was  shorter, 
but  dangerous,  because  of  the  prevailing  fevers. 

It  was  the  lure  of  gold,  then,  which  in  spite  of  the 
most  serious  physical  obstacles,  caused  the  rapid  settle- 
ment of  California.  Had  gold  not  existed  here  California 
would  have  been  settled  slowly  by  an  agricultural  popu- 
lation, as  in  large  part  was  Oregon  and  Washington.  It 
was  gold  which  kept  the  almost  continuous  line  of  ox 
teams  crossing  the  vast  reaches  of  the  Great  Plains.  It 
was  gold  which  led  men,  women  and  children  to  suffer 
privation  and  sometimes  death  on  the  deserts.  It  was 
gold  which  led  them  across  the  lofty  Sierras,  where  snow 
sometimes  blocked  their  passage,  and  where  their  wagons 
had  to  be  taken  to  pieces  and  let  down  by  ropes  over 
cliffs.  Without  the  great  incentive  offered  by  gold  Cali- 
fornia would  have  long  remained  sparsely  settled.  The 
larger  number  of  Eastern  emigrants  would  have  awaited 
the  coming  of  the  transcontinental  railroad — that  modern 
leveler  of  physical  barriers. 

We  can  say,  then,  that  the  situation  and  geographic 
environment  of  California  would  have  tended,  under 
ordinary  conditions,  to  make  its  growth  in  population 
slow.  To  be  sure,  many  people  would  have  come  over- 
land to  settle  in  the  fertile  valleys,  as  they  did  in  Oregon. 
Many  would  have  made  homes  on  the  prairies  and  great 
plains  of  the  Middle  West,  and  transportation  by  boat 
would  have  played  a  relatively  more  important  part. 
People  would  not  have  hurled  themselves  blindly  against 
such  dangerous  barriers  as  under  the  then  existing  condi- 
tions surrounding  California. 


178  The    Geography    of    California 

The  position  of  California  made  it  natural  that  Spain 
should  explore  and  send  the  first  settlers  to  its  shores. 
The  advantage  which  she  had  was,  however,  not  followed 
up  The  remoteness  of  the  province,  and  the  ease  with 
which  the  people  supported  themselves  on  the  rich  soil, 
and  in  an  agreeable  climate,  tended  toward  stagnation 
instead  of  advance.  If  the  people  had  been  progressive 
the  geographic  barriers  which  separated  California  from 
the  East  would  have  aided  Mexico  greatly  in  retaining  it. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  why  the  early  exploration  of 
California  was  not  carried  on  by  land  expeditions  from 
Mexico.  One  party  got  as  far  north  as  the  Grand  Canon, 
but  could  not  cross  it.  Another  went  up  the  Colorado 
river  from  the  Gulf  of  California,  but  owing  to  the  bare 
and  forbidding  aspect  of  the  country  the  men  did  not 
dare  to  go  far  from  their  boats. 

We  are  accustomed  to  think  of  the  sea  as  the  great 
highway,  and  the  shores  of  a  new  country  as  most  easily 
explored  by  boat.  We  would  naturally  think  it  a  simple 
matter  for  the  explorers  and  settlers  from  Mexico  to 
make  their  way  north  along  the  Pacific  Coast,  but  as  a 
matter  of  fact  this  was  not  the  case.  The  narratives  of 
all  the  expeditions  by  water  speak  of  the  scarcity  of  good 
harbors,  and  the  constant  succession  of  head  winds.  It 
often  took  as  long  for  a  vessel  to  beat  up  the  coast  as  for 
an  expedition  to  traverse  the  distance  by  land.  It  is 
interesting  to  note,  then,  what  little  advantage  California 
had  in  the  early  days  from  her  position  upon  the  Pacific. 

Nearly  all  new  countries  were  traversed  first  by  means 
of  their  rivers  and  lakes.  In  California,  however,  and 
in  fact  throughout  all  the  vast  region  extending  eastward 


Effect  of  Geographic  Conditions  179 

to  the  Missouri  river,  the  emigrants  and  explorers  met 
with  scarcely  no  assistance  from  the  waterways.  The 
Platte  and  Arkansas  rivers  were  generally  too  shallow 
for  the  use  of  boats,  while  the  Colorado  was  found  buried 
in  an  inaccessible  canon,  and  the  Shake  broken  by  canons 
and  rapids.  The  Columbia  was  used  for  a  comparatively 
short  distance  from  The  Dalles  to  the  sea.  In  California 
the  only  inland  water  made  use  of  by  the  emigrants  was 
about  100  miles  of  the  lower  Sacramento,  between  the 
town  of  the  same  name  and  San  Francisco. 

The  missions  of  San  Diego,  Monterey,  Santa  Barbara, 
Santa  Cruz  and  San  Francisco  were  located  with  refer- 
ence to  harbors,  while  the  sites  of  the  others  which  were 
strung  along  the  main  highway  connecting  these,  and 
which  reached  as  far  north  as  Sonoma,  were  chosen  with 
especial  reference  to  the  presence  of  water  for  irrigating 
their  gardens.  The  Mission  Fathers  were  not  long  in 
discovering  that  California  had  a  climate  similar  in  many 
respects  to  that  of  Mexico,  and  it  was  their  first  care  to 
select  well  watered  and  fertile  valleys  for  the  founding 
of  their  establishments. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  country  appeared  drier  and 
more  forbidding  toward  the  interior,  the  settlements 
which  grew  up  along  the  line  of  Missions  showed  little 
tendency  to  spread  far  from  the  coast.  The  priests  dis- 
couraged attempts  at  mining,  and  there  was  little  other 
inducement  to  explore  the  vast  and  almost  unknown 
interior.  The  isolation  of  California  tended  to  make  the 
people  self-supporting,  and  to  the  development  of  a  quiet 
and  peaceful  life.  There  was  no  market  for  products 
other  than  hides  and  tallow,  which  the  New  England 


.SO  The    Geography    of    California 

trading  vessels  occasionally  called  for,  and  so  cattle  rais- 
ing became  the  only  important  industry. 

We  find,  then,  that  up  to  the  period  of  gold  discovery 
geographic  conditions  determined  in  the  fullest  degree 
the  position  of  the  settlements  and  the  occupation  of  the 
people.  If  it  had  not  been  for  this  discovery  the  develop- 
ment of  California  as  an  agricultural  and  commercial 
State  would  have  proceeded  along  much  the  same  line  as 
the  Spanish  settlement.  The  seaports  and  valleys  where 
water  was  abundant  would  have  received  the  bulk  of  the 
emigrants,  and  from  these  they  would  gradually  have 
spread,  as  they  learned  to  make  use  of  irrigation,  into 
the  drier  valleys  and  mountains.  As  it  was,  however, 
the  search  for  gold  carried  the  bulk  of  the  people  away 
from  the  distinctly  agricultural  districts  and  into  the 
gulches  and  canons  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Klamath 
mountains. 

The  situations  chosen  for  the  numerous  towns  which 
sprang  up  through  the  foothill  belt  as  a  result  of  the 
mining  excitement  are  in  many  cases  peculiar  and  inter- 
esting. The  location  of  each  was  determined  by  con- 
venience to  some  particularly  rich  "bar"  or  stream.  Some 
of  them  were  in  narrow  gulches  or  on  steeply  sloping 
mountain  sides,  and  they  were  rarely  placed  with  regard 
to  agricultural  possibilities  or  thought  of  future  lines  of 
travel  and  communication. 

The  only  available  port  in  which  supplies  could  be 
received  by  ship,  and  all  had  to  come  that  way,  was  San 
Francisco,  and  that  little  town  soon  became  a  bustling 
city.  From  San  Francisco  goods  and  passengers  could 
easily  reach  Stockton,  Sacramento,  Marysville  and  Red 


Effect  of  Geographic  Conditions  181 

Bluff,  from  which  points  they  were  distributed  to  the 
various  mining  camps.  It  is  very  interesting  to  compare 
San  Francisco  and  Monterey  as  regards  their  growth 
during  the  gold  excitement.  Monterey  was  one  of  the 
oldest  places  in  the  State,  as  well  as  metropolis  and  early 
capital,  while  San  Francisco  was  merely  a  little  hamlet. 
The  geographic  position  and  environment  of  these  places 
became  all-important.  Monterey,  although  situated  in  a 
fairly  well  protected  bay,  had  no  direct  connection  with 
the  interior,  and  was,  moreover,  farther  from  the  mines. 
It  lay  upon  no  line  of  communication  with  them,  and 
scarcely  felt  the  exciting  events  of  the  gold  period,  and 
up  as  late  as  1890  it  remained  one  of  the  most  typical 
of  the  old  Spanish  towns  of  California. 

The  wonderful  growth  of  San  Francisco  was  foreshad- 
owed by  its  position  upon  the  great  bay.  There  is  no 
other  place  upon  the  Pacific  Coast  of  the  United  States 
so  clearly  adapted  by  nature  to  be  the  seat  of  a  great 
commercial  city.  The  situation  of  San  Francisco  Bay 
is  central,  and  with  its  arms  and  tributary  valleys  reach- 
ing out  into  the  heart  of  the  central  and  northern  portions 
of  the  State,  it  controls  an  area  which  will  some  day  be 
populated  by  many  millions. 

The  situation  of  Sacramento  gave  it  an  advantage 
over  the  other  valley  towns  which  came  into  existence 
as  supply  points  for  the  mines.  Larger  boats  could 
ascend  the  Sacramento  river  to  this  point  than  could 
reach  the  other  places.  Sutter  Fort  was  situated  on  the 
American  river  near  the  town,  and  was  a  well  known 
rendezvous  for  all  the  early  emigrants,  so  that  all  the 
main  overland  trails  converged  here. 


182  The    Geography    of    California 

At  the  breaking  out  of  the  gold  excitement  Captain 
Sutter  was  engaged  in  growing  grain  in  the  Sacramento 
Valley,  but  home-raised  supplies  of  all  kinds,  with  the 
exception  of  meat,  were  soon  entirely  inadequate  to  meet 
the  demand,  and  living  became  very  high.  No  one 
wanted  to  do  such  prosaic  work  as  farming  when  gold 
was  to  be  had  for  the  mere  digging  in  the  river  gravels. 
In  a  comparatively  short  time  matters  began  to  mend, 
for  the  richest  placers  were  soon  exhausted,  and  those 
unsuccessful  at  mining,  as  well  as  the  late  comers,  turned 
to  agriculture. 

After  a  time  the  ancient  river  channels  were  opened 
up  by  means  of  hydraulic  mining,  and  quartz  veins  began 
to  be  discovered  and  worked,  but  these  operations 
employed  comparatively  few  men,  and  the  great  bulk  of 
the  population  which  had  so  quickly  gathered  began  to 
slowly  drift  away.  Scores  of  once  bustling  towns  grew 
quiet,  and  after  a  few  years  many  of  them  were  recognized 
only  by  deserted  and  tumble-down  buildings.  With  the 
increase  in  the  agricultural  population  and  the  develop- 
ment of  manufacturing  and  trade  California  society 
began  to  take  on  a  normal  character. 

We  have  already  traced  the  agricultural  growth  of  the 
State  from  the  period  of  stock  raising  through  the  period 
of  the  great  ranches  which  were  given  over  largely  to 
grain,  to  the  modern  period  characterized  by  diversified 
farming  and  growing  of  fruits  upon  small  and  carefully 
cultured  tracts.  Each  of  the  above  periods  existed  as 
the  result  of  definite  geographic  conditions,  whose  modifi- 
cation led  to  the  transition  to  the  next  stage. 


Effect  of  Geographic  Conditions  183 

Owing  to  the  isolation  of  California  under  Mexican 
rule,  the  chief  products  which  could  be  profitably  shipped 
were  hides  and  tallow,  and  there  would  have  been  no 
demand  for  these  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  energy  and 
pluck  of  the  New  England  trading  vessels.  With  the 
growth  of  the  population  there  came  a  demand  for  meat 
and  grain.  The  former  could  be  driven  any  reasonable  dis- 
tance to  market,  but  the  profitable  growing  of  grain  was 
limited  to  those  areas  near  water  transportation,  until 
the  railroads  were  extended  through  the  main  valleys. 

The  development  of  California  has  been  greatly 
retarded  through  the  lack  of  internal  waterways.  The 
various  arms  of  San  Francisco  Bay  within  comparatively 
short  reach  of  the  Sacramento  river  and  its  tributaries 
being  the  only  ones  available. 

From  a  geographic  standpoint,  no  finer  conditions 
could  exist  for  an  important  waterway  than  those  fur- 
nished by  the  Great  Valley  and  the  drainage  lines  in  it. 
By  proper  dredging,  the  Sacramento  river  could  be  used 
for  freighting  crops  and  merchandise  to  a  point  nearly 
or  quite  as  far  north  as  Redding.  In  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley  only  a  slight  divide  of  about  twenty-five  feet 
separates  the  waters  of  the  San  Joaquin  from  the  basins 
of  Lake  Tulare  and  Buena  Vista  Lake.  A  canal  could 
be  constructed  from  the  latter  lake,  at  the  southern  end 
of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  northwesterly  to  the  San 
Joaquin  river  and  tidewater,  with  no  serious  engineering 
difficulties  in  the  way,  thus  affording  a  cheap  outlet  to 
one  of  the  greatest  and  richest  garden  spots  of  the  world. 

Irrigation  was  first  looked  upon  by  the  settlers  from 
the  East  as  a  laborious  and  tedious  method  of  growing 


184  The    Geography    of    California 

crops,  and  it  was  some  time  before  they  began  to  under- 
stand its  application,  and  the  great  advantage  which  it 
offered  in  enabling  them  to  moisten  the  ground  just 
when  moisture  was  needed,  rather  than  to  depend  upon 
chance  showers. 

Irrigation  is  of  great  importance  to  California,  not 
only  because  there  are  large  areas  where  the  rainfall  is 
insufficient,  but  because  much  of  what  does  fall  comes 
at  the  wrong  season  of  the  year.  Winter  is  the  wet 
season  in  California,  and  at  that  time  the  weather  is  so 
cool  that  plants  grow  but  little,  even  in  the  warmer 
valleys.  As  spring  comes  on  the  precipitation  grows 
less,  and  finally  ceases  entirely  in  the  summer  months, 
just  when  growing  things  need  it  the  most. 

Another  thing  which  makes  irrigation  easy  to  carry 
out  on  a  large  scale  is  the  fact  that  the  extensive  lowland 
valleys  lying  about  the  bases  of  the  mountains  in  which 
the  streams  head,  have  a  gentle,  even  slope  just  suited  to 
canals  and  ditches.  At  the  mouth  of  every  canon  there  has 
been  built  up  a  broad  flat  debris  cone,  and  it  is  the  union 
of  these  cones  in  one  broad  plain  which  gives  rise  to  the 
valley  slopes. 

The  importance  of  lofty  mountains  in  a  region  defi- 
cient in  moisture  is  clearly  illustrated  in  California.  They 
not  only  increase  the  precipitation  several  times  what  it 
otherwise  would  be,  but  much  of  it  is  left  in  the  form 
of  snow,  which  melts  slowly  and  aids  greatly  in  keeping 
up  the  summer  flow  of  the  streams.  A  supply  of  water 
for  irrigation  is  thus  made  possible  where,  if  the  moun- 
tains were  absent,  the  region  must  remain  an  unproduc- 
tive desert. 


Effect  of  Geographic  Conditions  185 

The  possibilities  of  irrigation  for  the  growth  of  fruit 
and  vegetables  could  not  be  fully  realized  until  a  market 
could  be  obtained  outside  of  the  State.  The  building  of 
the  transcontinental  railroads  was  the  final  link  in  the 
chain  of  causes  and  effects,  and  was  really  the  opening 
up  of  our  modern  California  development.  Dried  fruits, 
grain  and  other  non-perishable  products  could  be  shipped 
around  the  Horn  by  boat,  but  until  the  railroads  came 
there  was  no  market  for  fresh  fruit  outside  the  State 
and  the  immediately  adjoining  coastal  regions.  With  the 
rapid  overland  trains  we  now  deliver  fresh  fruit  and  vege- 
tables by  the  thousands  of  carloads  all  over  the  United 
States. 

The  growth  of  manufacturing  industries  in  California 
has  been  seriously  affected  by  geographic  conditions. 
The  cost  of  living  continued  high  for  many  years  follow- 
ing the  gold  excitement  because  of  the  comparatively 
small  attention  given  to  agriculture,  and  so  it  was  diffi- 
cult to  compete  with  eastern  products.  Besides  this, 
almost  all  the  coal  used  had  to  be  imported  by  boat  from 
distant  countries.  Although  iron  deposits  are  known  to 
exist  in  California,  little,  if  any  ore  has  been  mined  and 
smelted.  The  recent  discovery  of  immense  petroleum 
fields  in  the  Coast  Ranges,  whose  deposits  seem  inex- 
haustible, is  a  very  important  thing  for  manufacturing, 
since  the  larger  part  of  the  oil  is  better  adapted  for  fuel 
purposes  than  any  other. 

If  we  except  the  redwoods  along  the  coast,  the  forests 
of  California  are  found  mostly  in  the  mountains,  and 
were  difficult  to  reach  by  the  means  at  the  command  of 
the  early  settlers.    During  the  period  of  the  gold  excite- 


186  The    Geography    of    California 

ment  materials  for  many  houses  were  brought  around  the 
Horn. 

Owing  to  geographic  conditions  being  very  different 
from  those  surrounding  the  forests  in  the  Eastern  States, 
lumbering  in  California  has  been  carried  on  in  a  different 
manner.  The  rivers  were  not  available  for  "log  drives," 
since  they  were  generally  found  to  flow  swiftly  over 
rocky  beds  through  deep  canons.  In  order  to  get  the 
lumber  to  market,  then,  mills  were  erected  in  the  forests 
in  the  mountains,  and  flumes  constructed  leading  from 
the  mills  at  a  gentle  grade  down  to  the  valleys  where 
they  connected  with  the  railroads.  As  the  logs  were 
sawed  the  lumber  was  thrown  into  the  flumes,  which 
were  filled  with  water,  and  borne  by  its  rapi4  current 
around  the  mountains  and  along  the  sides  of  canons  a 
distance  sometimes  of  thirty  to  fifty  miles. 

We  have  seen  that  physical  conditions  such  as  climate, 
water  supply,  nearness  to  the  ocean,  or  to  that  great 
highway  known  as  the  Camino  Real,  were  the  determin- 
ing factors  in  the  location  of  the  early  Spanish  settle- 
ments. We  have  seen  also  that  with  the  discovery  of 
gold  physical  conditions  were  practically  ignored.  Men 
braved  every  danger  and  surmounted  every  physical 
obstruction  in  their  rush  for  the  mines.  Outside  of  the 
supply  towns  and  the  port  of  San  Francisco  the  popula- 
tion was  mainly  concentrated  in  the  gold  belt.  With  the 
exhaustion  of  the  placers  the  population  began  to  spread 
according  to  the  demands  of  agriculture,  that  most  funda- 
mental of  all  occupations. 

The  marked  differences  in  climate  of  various  parts  of 
the  State  influenced  the  distribution  of  the  early  agri- 


Effect  of  Geographic  Conditions  187 

cultural  population  even  more  than  physical  features  and 
accessibility  to  market.  People  settled  first  where  the 
rainfall  was  sufficient  to  grow  the  common  crops  with 
little  or  no  irrigation.  Large  areas  in  Southern  California 
and  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  were  passed  by,  although 
the  soil  appeared  to  be  of  the  best.  Nearness  to  water, 
either  springs  or  streams,  determined  the  locations  of  the 
first  homes  under  irrigation.  Then  came  the  leading  of 
water  by  ditches  and  canals  many  miles  onto  land  which 
was  worthless  without  water,  and  with  this  the  apparently 
desert  portions  of  the  State  began  to  settle  up. 

Another  factor  which  affected  the  distribution  of  the 
early  agricultural  population,  and  in  some  degree  affects 
it  today,  was  the  existence  of  Spanish  grants.  Nearly 
all  the  valleys  of  Southern  California,  as  well  as  parts 
of  the  adjacent  mountain  slopes  which  were  of  value  for 
grazing  purposes,  and  all  the  valley  lands  of  the  Coast 
Ranges  as  far  north  as  the  San  Francisco  Bay  region, 
had  at  some  time  been  granted  by  the  Mexican  govern- 
ment to  the  early  Spanish  settlers,  and  these  titles  were 
confirmed  with  the  transfer  of  the  region  to  the  United 
States.  Stock  raising  has  continued  down  to  the  present 
to  be  the  only  industry  upon  some  of  these  grants,  while 
others  have  been  devoted  to  grain.  The  most  of  these 
grants  have  now  been  cut  up  into  small  tracts  for  inten- 
sive farming. 

The  effect  of  climate  on  the  distribution  of  the  various" 
agricultural  pursuits  forms  an  interesting  study.  The 
State  is  divided  into  belts  and  zones,  some  of  which  are 
determined  by  elevation,  others  by  their  position  with 
relation   to   the   ocean.      Oranges,    lemons,    figs,    olives, 


188  The    Geography    of    California 

raisin  grapes,  etc.,  are  grown  to  best  advantage  in  the 
warm  interior  valleys.  Many  fruits  belonging  naturally 
in  a  more  temperate  climate  do  well  in  the  same  valleys. 
Among  these  are  peaches,  pears,  apricots,  plums  and 
prunes.  The  latter  really  do  better,  however,  in  the 
cooler  valleys  near  the  coast,  as  well  as  in  the  mountain 
valleys  where  the  elevation  is  too  great  for  citrus  fruits. 
Cherries  do  not  produce  in  the  hot  valleys,  nor  are  the 
apples  grown  there  good.  The  best  apples  are  grown  in 
the  mountains  at  an  elevation  of  3000  to  4000  feet,  but  all 
through  the  Coast  Ranges  there  are  many  favored  spots 
at  a  much  less  altitude  where  large  quantities  are  raised. 

Few  fruits  do  well  upon  the  open  coast  where  they 
are  exposed  to  the  winds  off  the  ocean.  This'  belt  is, 
however,  especially  adapted  to  dairying,  since  the  cool 
air,  moisture,  and  more  abundant  grass  through  a  longer 
portion  of  the  year  are  all  favorable  factors.  Since  the 
development  of  irrigation  and  the  growing  of  large  quan- 
tities of  alfalfa  dairying  has  been  carried  on  much  more 
extensively  in  the  interior. 

In  the  lowland  valleys  of  the  Coast  Ranges,  too  cool 
or  frosty  for  citrus  fruits,  the  walnut  and  almond  are 
grown  extensively.  Beans  do  best  in  the  sandy  soils  of 
the  damp  coastal  region.  The  variations  of  soil  and 
climate  in  California  are  so  great  that  space  forbids  the 
presentation  of  more  detail  along  this  line.  We  should 
make  note,  however,  of  the  remarkable  variety  of  fruits 
and  vegetables  which,  though  here  grown  to  perfection 
side  by  side,  are  ordinarily  found  in  different  climatic 
zones. 


Effect  of  Geographic  Conditions  189 

Each  of  the  seven  provinces  under  which  the  State 
has  been  discussed  in  the  previous  pages  has  certain 
fairly  well  defined  physical  and  biological  characteristics 
which  should  enable  one  to  recognize  it  when  these  are 
described.  The  importance  of  having  a  clear  mental 
image  of  the  relief  of  California,  in  the  light  of  what  has 
already  been  said,  cannot  be  over  estimated. 

It  should  be  noted  further,  in  connection  with  a  study  of 
the  influence  of  relief,  that  the  rivalry  which  has  at  times 
existed  between  Northern  and  Southern  California,  and 
threatened  to  start  a  movement  for  State  division,  has  a 
real  basis  in  geographic  conditions.  The  Mohave  Desert, 
with  its  plateau-like  surface  and  inclosing  mountain 
ranges,  which  separate  it  alike  from  Central  and  Southern 
California,  forms  a  great  wedge  pointing  westward 
which  almost  cuts  the  State  in  two  parts.  In  earlier 
times  this  barrier  would  have  given  rise,  without  doubt, 
to  two  separate  peoples  having  their  communication 
mainly  by  water.  With  modern  means  of  communication 
afTorded  by  the  railroads,  deserts  and  mountains  are  prac- 
tically obliterated.  As  it  is  now  merchants  in  Los 
Angeles  actually  ship  goods  across  this  once  important 
barrier  into  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  in  competition  with 
the  merchants  of  San  Francisco. 

In  looking  over  the  physical  conditions  under  which 
California  life  is  developing,  we  see  that  physical  bar- 
riers can  be  overcome.  We  see  that  water  can  be  con- 
ducted from  where  it  is  abundant  to  where  it  is  needed 
in  order  to  utilize  the  land,  as  illustrated  in  the  fullest 
degree  in  the  case  of  the  Los  Angeles  aqueduct.    There 


19C  The    Geography    of    California 

is  one  factor,  however,  that  cannot  be  changed  by  man, 
and  that  is  climate. 

We  cannot  make  the  climate  in  a  given  place  either 
warmer  or  colder,  nor  can  we  change  the  amount  and 
distribution  of  the  rainfall.  We  can,  however,  seriously 
affect  the  benefits  of  the  rainfall  by  careless  treatment  of 
the  forested  slopes  about  the  heads  of  the  streams.  If 
we  cut  down  the  forests  and  remove  the  humus  cover 
from  the  soil  the  waters  will  run  away  in  floods,  bearing 
the  best  of  the  soil  with  it,  while  the  floods  will  be 
followed  by  almost  dry  stream  beds  in  the  long,  hot 
summers. 

The  future  development  of  California  is  intimately 
dependent  upon  the  careful  and  rational  conservation  of 
its  forests  and  streams.  The  geographic  environment 
given  us  by  Nature  can  be  modified  in  some  ways,  but 
in  others  its  exactions  are  merciless. 


ACTUAL   RELIEF   MAP    OF   CALIFORNIA. 


The  value  of  relief  maps  for  teaching  Geography  and 
Physiography  is  now  so  generally  understood  and 
acknowledged  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  explain  the 
great  advantages  to  be  derived  from  this  map. 

The  Actual  Relief  Map  of  California  is  34  inches  by 
41^2  inches.  (Scale  eighteen  miles  to  the  inch  with  a 
vertical  scale  of  seven  to  one.)  It  is  large  enough  to 
show  the  details  of  the  topography  of  the  State  clearly 
to  an  entire  class.  The  map  is  made  of  a  special  com- 
position which  is  hard  and  durable,  and  at  the  same 
time  light,  so  that  it  can  readily  be  handled  by  the 
teacher.  It  may  be  hung  on  the  wall  for  general  dem- 
onstration or  placed  on  a  table  for  class  study.  The 
map  is  mounted  in  a  substantial  oak  frame. 

The  modeling  is  accurate  down  to  the  smallest  pos- 
sible details,  and  in  addition  to  all  of  the  topographical 
features  of  the  State,  the  principal  lakes,  rivers,  cities 
and  towns  are  located,  and  the  names  of  the  important 
bays,  ranges,  mountains  and  peaks  are  shown.  The 
counties  also  are  outlined  and  the  principal  railroads  of 
the  State  located  as  are  also  the  large  forests  and 
national  reserves. 

Supplementary  to  the  main  model  of  the  State  of 
California,  in  the  northeast  corner  of  the  map  a  relief 
model  of  San  Francisco  and  vicinity  is  included.  This 
is  modeled  on  an  enlarged  scale,  namely,  four  miles 
to  the  inch,  with  a  vertical  scale  of  three  to  one.  It 
shows  the  topography  of  San  Francisco,  the  harbor  and 
the  surrounding  country  to  much  better  advantage  than 
is  possible  on  the  regular  map  of  smaller  scale.  Los 
Angeles  and  vicinity  is  also  treated  in  the  same  way  on 
a  scale  of  ten  miles  to  the  inch  and  vertical  scale  of  two 
to  one. 

Price,  in  strong  oak  frame,  $17.50. 

WHITAKER    &    RAY-WIGGIN    CO., 

San  Francisco. 


"TNIV 


^OPNTA  I^A* 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 

TOCT)  LD 


iitt- 


^W7 


27Mar'65lM 


REC'D  LD 


MR  21 '65 -6  FM 


iEP  L  2  1907  3  6 
REC'^ 


SEPl8'67-5PM 


LOANDLFl 


JAN  2 1 1884 


— m^y 


— 


LD  21A-50m-12,'60 
(B6221sl0)476B 


General  Library     .t 
Uaiversity  of  California 


STATIONERY  CO 
BOOKS.OFFICE& 

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NAPA.    CAL,_ 


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